he process of projecting the information system in the UNIV Project (UNIV – Recognition of the results of informal learning and non-formal education by networks of schools providing the education service for adults) is rather an extensive process and one can perceive this issue from many perspectives. In some respects, the social aspect may prevail along with psychological or organizational. Another perspective could involve own steering processes, or an attempt in concentrating on the relation of the IS being developed and the information strategy of the beneficiary.
Defining Fundamental Terms
I come across very often an opinion that a project is a component of the documentation, according to which something will be carried out or that a project is actually each new product, which we are launching, however nothing else. Or else by the term ‘project’ each big task is designated, in such a way that neither the way of solution, nor the organization of resources and work for that solution along with the handing over the results does differ from a common working process. Those are only known partial meanings of the word ‘project’.
The meaning of the term ‘project’ is necessary to understand in a broader perspective in a sense of an idea, a proposal, a plan, and a complex solution of an intended assignment along with the working out of its necessities. The project is the purposive proposal for implementing an innovation within the given start and end dates. The task, which has a defined start and end, requires engaging one or more connected, dependent on each other, limited resources, which have to be used, in order to achieve the set goal.
The project is a unique process consisting of a series of the coordinated and managed activities with start and end dates, which is carried out for attaining the aim, which meets specific requirements, including the limitation given by time, costs and resources.
As said by V. Němec, it is possible to find a more accurate definition of the project as a unique set of activities. The project is an effort of achieving a change, during which a lot of activities is carried out, which lead to the creation of a product or development and implementation of the specific technology. The target state is achieved during the limited time, within the limited resources and costs and while attaining the required qualitative parameters. The product of the project is what is defined in the plan of the project output and submitted to the customer.
The plan can be executed as a project, if it is distinguished by the singularity of conditions, an adequate complexity, interdisciplinary cooperation, and if it is not satisfactory solvable within the standard line organization. The project always is distinguished by an uncertainty and relatively high level of risk connected with the fulfillment of the required goals.
Basic Features of the Project
§ The unique plan exceeding the every day tasks (differs from routine activities with the contents and target orientation)
§ Unrepeatability
§ Definite set tasks (measurability, concreteness, availability)
§ Clearly defined responsibilities for the result
§ The defined start and end date (the project is a temporary structure)
§ Limited resources (coworkers, finances, equipment, etc.)
§ Fixed budget and fixed capacities
§ Interdisciplinary cooperation
§ Complex requirements
§ A high level of innovation
§ High risk
Personally, I summarize the total meaning of the term ‘project’ as follows:
...a unique system of activities leading to the beforehand set and clearly defined objective, which has a certain start and end, which requires cooperation of many professions, which links their capacities and their effort and uses (possible consumes) for creating the target outputs information, material, money, abilities, and skills of the people involved.
From the process point of view, one can state that the project is a one-time transformation of inputs (information, material, money, abilities, and skills of the people involved) to the outputs (target products), by means of developmental activities, which are set up by stages, steps, tasks) and coordinating managing activities.
Project Functions of Management
The correct three-dimensionality of the project arises always with the process of planning. And planning is nothing else than a gradual answer to the correctly put questions (what, how, with whom, when and for how much). First, we have to plan the contents exactly – what should be done. It is necessary to formulate unequivocally what will exist on finishing the project or possibly, which activities will be done. Each project should have its own goal. The closely defined objectives, focused rather on the function feature of the built SW lead to the loss of the strategic orientation of the project and cause failures.
If we are clear what we are supposed to do (the first dimension of the three imperative), then we have to say how to do it – i.e. to describe the procedure, how to reach the aims. At the same time, we are concentrating purely on the logic of the matter, i.e what to implement at the earliest, what next, what we can do simultaneously and what must be finished, in order to proceed further. At the beginning, it is not necessary to deal with the question of time – when to take a particular step. In planning the procedure, how to achieve the project goals, it is convenient to use the three stage hierarchy. We distinguish:
1. Project stages,
2. Project steps,
3. Project operations.
Stages follow sequentially. At the end of each stage, there is a gate, which lets the project pass through into another stage. Within the stage, steps are taken; some of them can take place concurrently. Each step forms a partial product, which contributes to the overall result. We plan steps, along with the stages, for the entire project.
The smallest parts of work are operations – elementary packages of work allocated to individuals or small, two or three member teams. Operations are not necessary to be planned more in advance than the following stage of the project. Incessant changes, which the project encounters, make us remake constantly the detailed plan of operations at the later stages of the project.
Once we know what and how we will do it, we have enough documents for determining with whom we will do it. The nature of goals and selected consecutive activities determine namely the set of professional knowledge, abilities, and skills, which we will need. First, we will plan the required project roles and then we will start staffing them with specific people. We will form a project team. It will provide us a framework, in which we can answer questions of the left two dimensions of the three-imperative – when something is done, how much it will be. Among those two plans one has to iterate: first, from experience, we will suggest the first estimate of dates, when something is done and we will complete it with the estimate of work consumption of team members. Then, we will correct the originally suggested dates based on the estimates of work consumption. Those two iterative steps, when necessary, can be repeated once again. In the following picture, the structure of the project stages is graphically depicted.
About the UNIV Project
The project seeks to support further education in the Czech Republic. It responds to the ever-changing needs of the society, the fast development of technological, technical and information processes and structures as well as the variability of the labour market. In the developed world learning is not considered a mere education process of children and youngsters leading to a successful career. Learning becomes a normal part of life at any age, in fact we can say that life of adult people is a constant learning. Further education is a less developed part of the lifelong learning which gives people the ability to cope with the above mentioned changes, compete on the labour market, even in the international environment. The lifelong learning is also a path to the individual development of each of us as well as prevention of social exclusion. It will not cure all problems of our society but it is an undeniable prerequisite of its further development.
Two partial goals aimed at achieving a notable expansion of further education have been formulated within the project:
§ encourage the secondary schools and higher professional schools in providing further education;
§ extend the offer of further education by procedures enabling the recognition of results of informal learning and non-formal education, i.e. any type of previous learning.
Further Education Provided by Secondary Schools and Higher Professional Schools
Schools involved in the project will create a network covering six regions of the country (Karlovy Vary, Ústí nad Labem, Pardubice, Jižní Čechy, Zlín, Olomouc). Those schools were chosen by the education departments of the respective regional authorities and many of them have the experience in the area of futher training already. Now they will apply a systematic approach to the area of futher training. A uniform methodology will be followed in every stage from mapping the needs of the labour market to the preparation of modular training programmes. This is a prerequisite of the efficient use of the prepared modules while building the programmes of further training. Modules will be contained in the database of every single network, they will become a kind of ‘reservoir’ from which the members of the network can draw information and inspiration in the future. They will also have a possibility to include individual modules in their future programme. All the training programmes will be designed in close cooperation with social partners who will also participate in their evaluation.
Each network will have a coordination centre performing a number of important activities (roles) for the smooth operation of the network:
Coordination Role:
§ cooperation with social partners and its coordination;
§ coordination of the school activities, especially creation of the lifelong learning programmes;
Conceptual Role:
§ concept of the development of the network of schools, concept of creation and implementation of training programmes;
Methodological Role:
§ help and support in creation and implementation of lifelong learning programmes;
Evaluation Role:
§ evaluation of lifelong learning programmes;
§ evaluation of implementation of the programmes;
§ evaluation of institutions willing to join the network;
Training Role:
§ especially training of teachers and lecturers from the schools and institutions involved in the network;
Information and Consulting Role:
§ information about the offer of programmes;
§ information about the labour market needs;
§ study counselling in planning the individual study path composed of various programme modules;
Development Role:
§ monitoring of new trends in the area of lifelong learning and training of adults and application of those trends in the activities of the center;
§ role of the authority and executive body in recognition of results of informal learning and non-formal education:
§ verification and evaluation of clients' competences acquired through informal learning or non-formal education and planning of their further educational path.
The following facts justify the effort to connect schools providing further education into a network:
§ the network is spread around the whole region, presenting the offer of the lifelong learning to citizens;
§ the network of schools becomes a partner for the employment offices simplifying their administration load which is very welcome by the employment offices;
§ the network cooperates in activities which are necessary for the planning and implementation of the education programmes;
§ schools can help each other by providing staff and materials;
§ thanks to the participation in the lifelong education network schools become more open to public ;
§ another element of the network will be a constant cooperation with social partners.
The basic output from this part of the project will consist in creation of network of schools providing the training services to adults in the six involved regions. At least 132 programmes of further education taking into account the needs of the labour market as well as the needs of the education market (especially the hobby areas) will be created.
Project Management and a Model of a Procedural Approach to the Management of UNIV Project
Prior to one’s own decision about using the procedural approach of the management of projects it is necessary to define the fundamental concepts and first and foremost to evaluate critically two possible approaches to the management of projects – a functional and procedural approach. Those two operations are worked out in the following part.
Functional and Procedural Approach Concept
Philosophy of the functional approach was defined in the general form as early as 1766 by Adam Smith in a book called ‘The wealth of nations’. It proceeds from the thought of separation, divisibility, when industrial production processes should be broken down into the simplest partial operations in such a manner, so that those were easily feasible by less qualified employees. In the developed concept of the functional approach according to V.Dolansky, the functional approach focuses on the outputs (results), what basically means the orientation on the consequences and not on the causes. It is apparent that the evaluation of the results does not have to reveal the causes of inefficiency; it leads necessary to the excessive number of coordinating and controlling project activities. Figuratively, this approach in managing human resources in projects leads to the static pyramid of the organizational structure, formed solely by uniting activities and staffing new project positions with the clearly defined project powers and responsibilities. Moreover, and in my opinion the biggest drawback of this approach concept is the fact that it contradicts basically with the individual user’s needs. It is oriented inward of the project, not outward. When accepting it, we stress the static structure, and not the dynamic views.
On the other hand, the procedural concept does not focus on the results, but rather on the causes. It presumes that the cause of the low quality outputs are incorrectly and ongoing processes inside of the system. When applying it to project management, this concept emphasizes the quality adjustment of managing project processes for the purpose of eliminating the inefficient project activities (processes). Its fundamental element is a concept ‘process’. Again, we can use the general definition of the process in the work by Dolansky.
By a process, we understand mutually interconnected partial activities, which in their progression transform inputs into the required outputs. It is a flow of work, proceeding from one man to another. The inputs form the initial sources (raw materials, capacities, information, documents, knowledge, outputs from the suppliers…), the outputs are at the same time the final results. In the project understanding, that is to say the results of the project activities.
The processes can be defined both on the level of corporate activities, and also on the level of the project activities leading to the solution of the specific project. Each process is divided into partial processes. The activity represents then a partial activity, which is conducted by a specific employee within the process. Those activities can be united in such a manner so that they could be carried out by specific employees.
From the point of project management, that approach has significant impacts on setting up a project team. It presumes namely project thinking, and also a project way of work. In the solver’s project teams, the categories such as the integration of project activities are stressed, along with main and minor processes, inputs and outputs of the processes, impacts and results. Separate project teams can solve partial project activities; they can be capable of self-government, self-control, and even self-organization. According to my own experience with managing projects, the procedural approach concept from the given above facts, is the essential requirement of quality project management.
Fundamental Principles of the Methods and Techniques Used for Managing Human Resources in UNIV Project
The efficient management of human resources in project management is based on respecting the principles of team work and management of teams. The task of the project team, the quality and the organization of team work influence directly the proper success of the solution of the project. Owning to the mentioned principle of the European projects, which are represented for instance by creating partnerships, the significance of the quality team work is increasing, too. It is also due to the fact that it is mostly about the rise of new working teams, whose members bring different working cultures, manners and methods of work into teams. This fact brings, on one hand, advantages of a high creativity and innovativeness of the project; however, on the other hand, it stresses extraordinary great demands on managing project work, in particular with large projects.
From that perspective, two essential factors delimitate a role for managing, such as follows:
§ Team roles and their respect in managing,
§ Team motivation.
The proposal of the organizational structure in a project team is a fundamental step of the life cycle of the project. Mostly, it is about the dynamic structure with the distinct problem orientation. The basic aim of this structure is the fulfillment of the goals of the project. In projects, we are dealing with proposing and implementing a respective integrated system or its parts. An issue of the transitoriness of the structure of the solver’s team does not have to reflect the transitoriness of the working team and its members, yet. Particularly, in the project oriented organizations, it is possible to use established working units for solving other projects. It applies namely to the implementation of projects, which are IT oriented, and where working roles in the analysis process, in the proposal and in processing are relatively well defined and reflect professional knowledge and workers’ experience with respective information competencies.
If we want to describe the team (working) roles more closely in the process of solving projects, it is necessary to proceed from particular stages, periods of solutions, and the introduction of the project into the system. Those workers, or team roles, who they represent, participate at different stages of one’s own solution in various project activities and control of one’s own course of the project. The extent of involvement corresponds fully to the specification of their roles and at the same time, proceeds from pieces of knowledge of project management used in the area of the implementation of the project.
The approved organizational structure in the project intention is a must. Nevertheless, just the solution of projects makes a distinction as to great dynamism, the control of work procedure, incremental mechanisms, and quick search for corrections and new ways. This requirement is impossible to meet, provided that the exact determination of powers and responsibilities in working team roles would be a dogma, for the entire period of the implementation of the project. Gradually, new activities and project tasks are likely to come up, which are necessary to specify exactly and first of all, to set responsibilities for their solutions, including the control of achieving the set milestones of the stages of the project. Those activities require necessarily the respond in the organizational structure of the project team. It is often the case that the redistribution of competencies and responsibilities in the project team takes place, quite often; new project activities are set along with work packages, which require the introduction of new work and project roles, including the necessity of expanding the project team by new workers with the required requirements. A basic feature of a well set project management is openness.
For the right project management of projects it is necessary to fulfill the condition of the motivation of particular members of the project team. This motivation is fully showed in understanding their project roles, the effort of the quality fulfillment of tasks (defined in the submission of the project), n the effort of keeping the set time schedule in accepting the approved budget costs. It means that workers feel a personal responsibility for the results achieved. In the given context, it is important for the members of the solver’s team:
§ To understand and interpret the required goals of the project,
§ To be able to quantify and verify the level of the fulfillment of partial project activities,
§ To believe in the attainability and fulfillment of outputs of project activities (project packages),
§ To be given the possibility to solve partial problems in a creative and innovative manner,
§ To be responsible for the goals achieved,
§ To be rewarded by the goals achieved.
From the view of the motivation of the team, the decisive factor in establishing the project team is to respect rules of the team development, its cycle, and the division into team roles. The motivation of the team members is dependant on the extent of their involvement at particular stages of the project, responsibilities for the activities and it is based on the principle that everyone who participates actively accepts better obligations and dates.
Among the main tasks, which the entitled subject by the investor of the IS project (solver) has to cope with, is setting up the solvers’ project team. As for the size and the composition of the project team, which is meant for implementing the IS project, experts’ opinions differ. Some authors recommend (Turner) that the project team should be as small as possible. According to the authors of that approach, well working project teams are capable of achieving the results, which by far exceed the potentional sum of the results of work of particular team members, if they would work separately. This effect is described by them as synergetic effect. Synergetic effects can be explained also physically – the group of people is able to relocate a bigger object than the individuals.
However, in proposing and setting up the project team of the IS project, I recommend considering some facts, which determine also the number of project team members. Among those the following factors can be ranked:
The Aspect of Time
It comes from the identified fact that prior to the first stages of the solution of the IS project very often informal roles arise, which are a natural result of a discussion, ideas and proposals, suggestions of the possibilities of finding a solution, and searching for opportunities. Those generally formulated input propositions arise very often in the form of the brainstorming method, when the input requirements are formed in the general form, along with aims, strategies and variants of the solution of the project. Basically, at that time the elemental project team is established, whose many members get involve into the solver’s part of the IS project and they are held responsible for fulfilling one’s own goals of individual project stages.
The Aspect of Knowledge and Skills
It proceeds from the theory of the priority of identifying necessary knowledge and skills, which are crucial for the project roles. In the IS projects, besides managerial skills in the first place, also information, analytical, programming, designing knowledge is essential along with the desired knowledge of the contents of the issues solved (e.g. knowledge of logistics, accounting etc.). On the basis of the need analysis and surveying the real required competencies, the next step involves then selecting those workers, who fulfill the requirements. That solver’s activity has to take place very often in a relative short, limited project stage. From practical experience, I can emphasize the exceptional importance of this decision and practical problems in looking for workers, who are equipped with respective competencies. The basic knowledge domain is the issues of graduates and the perspective of various target users’ groups on that object target group.
Within the project team, we can distinguish the formal and informal roles. The formal roles are defined functionally by responsibilities and competencies of individual members. The informal role comes from natural prerequisites of individual members, their personality profile, experience, and many other factors and they are not determined functionally. The degree of an accord of both types of roles increases the efficiency of work of the entire team and facilitates its managing. The overview and characteristics of the team roles in the IS projects is given in the following part.
The Basic Team of the Information System (of the UNIV) Project
It implements the project activities, which result from the life cycle of the project. It involves usually the following project roles and positions:
§ The project manager of the IS project (responsible for the implementation and outputs of the IS project).
§ Project managers of project activities (responsible for the implementation of the project packages).
§ Knowledge engineers (experts) with the specialization in the IS domain (responsible for the analysis, a proposal, a design and programming the application including the pilot verification).
§ Knowledge engineers (experts) with the specialization in the content domain of the respective quintessence of the problem solved. In the case of the RISA project, experts for education and labor market.
Support Team of Consultants, Experts and Users
The basic team fulfils very highly specialized tasks in the limited scope including the limited time aspect. Here, external consultants and experts for the marginal project activities belong, possibly the one time activities connected with the acquisition of data necessary for assessing the next procedure of the project. The representatives of users of outputs of project packages belong to this category as well, who carry out the testing and verifying in the pilot regime. In the project it was about the following types of project roles:
§ Experts for the analysis of personalities.
§ Experts for balance diagnostics.
§ Experts for marketing survey and its evaluation.
§ Experts for statistical data surveys concerning job offers on the internet.
§ Workers for disseminating the conclusions of the project – organizers of the conference.
§ Experts for a language arrangement of text documents in the electronic form.
§ Graphic designers and proof readers.
§ Translators and interpreters.
The Role of the Project Manager in the UNIV Project
The project manager can be characterized in the general form as a planner, an organizer, a controller, a coordinator, and a negotiator of project work. The project manager in our conception of project management is a person responsible for managing the project from the beginning to its end, including the responsibility for fulfilling partial subprojects (project activities). The project manager is then fully responsible for:
§ Managing the project and its administration.
§ Planning the project, supervision over it, and its management (implementation of implementation plans of the project).
§ Personnel administration.
§ Managing the coordination meetings of the project – members of the project team.
§ Dividing work within the project team, arranging working conditions of the members of the project team (suitable information securing).
§ Communication with the beneficiary including putting forward information about the course of the project implementation.
§ Project documentation.
§ The control of fulfilling the contract concluded with the investor of the project.
§ The control of costs and consumption of the time fund.
§ Identification of plan variances, managing change management.
§ Risk management.
§ Liaison management and establishing work contacts.
§ Administrative contracts.
§ The presentation of the project.
The project manager is then a person entrusted with management of the project and overall responsibility for its implementation. He/she manages the work of the project team in all information-technical problems, he/she takes care of the general organization and work management of the project team, and finally, he/she is accountable for communication with the beneficiary of the project, along with processing the continuous and final report. The question of the exact specification of his/her professional training, knowledge, managerial and information training along with qualifications is very much discussed. I suppose that he/she should have a master’s education, as an advantage can be seen his/r experience with managing knowledge projects.
The powers of the project manager can be defined as follows:
§ The right to decide when approving of outputs of parts of the project and final report.
§ Information, command rights along with the right to decide within the project.
§ Allowing the further advance by attaining the milestones – subsequent starting of work in further partial tasks of the project.
The base of the profile of the manager of projects are his/her knowledge techniques and skills of managing projects on a general level, the superstructure is formed by his/her competencies on the level of knowledge of development means. The ideal is then one’s won knowledge of the factual area of the project solved.
The project manager can be selected from two ultimate types. The first ultimate type has specific professional knowledge in the field, possible, in the field of the professional problem solved (analytic, programming, technical, and economic). The second type is a worker who possesses managerial and organizational prerequisites and skills, including communication and negotiation skills. It is only then a question of a decision made, what specific type of a worker is selected for the post of a project manager. A great mistake is to oversee the lack of some of managerial skills, such as for instance managing the project team, and communication skills. In particular in project management of projects, where outputs of particular stages are intangible, impalpable and provable, it is often about key skills for the further procedure of project activities.
The evaluation of the project manager results from a successful implementation of the project within the approved costs, time schedule, and indicators, which specify the quality of the solution. The fundamental task of the project manager is the specification of further project roles of projects.
The purpose of the specification of those project roles is:
§ The division of tasks, powers, and responsibilities, and first of all, in the group of the permanent team of the project,
§ Processing time schedules, getting individual workers of the permanent team into the implementation and control activities of the project,
§ Appointing and approving of project roles (including their staffing) within the steering bodies of the project.
Steering Committee
For securing the fulfillment of project tasks and for achieving the outputs set in project packages, project systems are used, which are defined as a steering committee. Their purpose is first of all to assist the project manager in implementing project tasks and delegating powers and responsibilities to the determined project roles. In the specification of projects, I suppose that it is appropriate to establish, to manage and to evaluate the activity of the following committees:
Steering Committee of the UNIV Project
This committee is occupied by a representative of the project investor, a project manager, senior executives of project activities, and possible representatives of suppliers of key technology items. It decides about the main facts of the project, the fulfillment and the advance of project activities, the achievement the output indicators, including the compliance with the approved budget of the project.
Committee for Managing Changes of the UNIV Project
This committee is qualified for assessing significant project changes. Aside from the project manager, it is necessary to provide for representatives of users, technology suppliers and to invite the respective project manager of the given project activity to the meeting concerning the work package. It is often the case that problems are solved during the meeting, which by their conclusion oversteps the competencies of this committee. In this case, it is suitable to process the output document as a proposal for the meeting of the steering committee of the project.
Roles of Project Managers of Project Activities
Project managers of the specific project activities are experts, who take full responsibility for fulfilling the specific project goals, activities and outputs set in the given project packages. In the managerial area, they manage and steer the specific partial solver’s team, while at the same they look after cooperation between teams, sharing project values and information within the technical and technological part. They communicate closely with the project manager and in joint meetings, within the steering committee; they secure the achievement of the project milestones within the specific respective activities.
Principles for Forming the Team
§ Always consult the involvement of individual members of the project team with their superior within the line structure.
§ Line managers can secure the area of quality in the project, it is necessary then to consult their role and approve of it in such a case.
§ Set up the matrix of the role of individual team members, team members will clearly see, what is expected from them to do and they will identify with their role
§ Set exactly responsibilities of individual team members. For each “work package”, one man is responsible.
§ The initial meeting of the team, getting to know each other, and establishing the atmosphere of mutual trust and willingness to cooperate, is a key element for the later success of the project.
§ Respect, apart from professional talent, also team roles (a project initiator, a person formulating the project, a team integrator, a mediator, a finisher) and psychological inclinations (creativity, preciseness, and so on).
§ Do not underestimate the possible disturbing role of some of professional workers in relation to the team functioning.
Recommended Information Sources
Řepa, V.: Analýza a návrh informačních systémů (Information System Analysing and Designing). Ekopress, Praha 1999, ISBN 80-86119-13-0 (in Czech)
Krajčík, V.,: The Entrepreneurial Information Environment of Small and Middle Sized Enterprises in the Czech Republic Folowing the EU Entry, In: Journal of Administrative Science, ročník 3, 2005, číslo 2, str. 15-23, Canakale Onsekiz Mart Universitesi, Ankara, ISSN : 1304-5318
Dolanský, V., Měkota V., Němec V.: Projektový management (Project Management). Grada, Praha 1996, ISBN 80-7169-287-4 (in Czech)
Němec, V.: Projektový management. (Project Management) Grada, Praha 2003, ISBN 80-247-0392-0 (in Czech)
Turner, J.R.: The handbook of project–based management: Improving the Processes for Achieving Strategic Objectives. Mc Graw-Hill, 1993
Krajčík, V., Ministr, J.: Analýza procesů a řízení projektu veřejného IS Informační místa pro podnikatele. In: Systémová integrace 4/2005, ročník 12, str. 90 – 100, Česká společnost pro systémovou integraci v Praze 2005, ISSN 1210-9479
Recommended sources available in the internet:
www.cedefop.eu.int/
www.vtc.edu.hk
www.dvta.org.uk
www.worldwidelearn.com/vocational-training.htm
www.trainingvillage.gr
www.sts-training.com
www.votechschools.org/
www.irantvto.com
www.enterweb.org/edutrain.htm
www.europa.eu.int/pol/educ/index_en.htm
www.worldskills.com
www.vtct.org.uk/
www.cedefop.eu.int/publications.asp
www.stkizito.com/
www.refugeenet.org/vocational_training
First published by Journal of Administrative Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2006, pp. 15-28. Republished by the JTW with permission. 2007
Factors of Investment Decision for Multinational Corporations: The case of Turkey
