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													<font face="Georgia" color="#003366" size="5">Die erste türkische Verfassung von 1876 KANUN-I ESASI</font></b></td>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt" align="center"><o:p><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"><a href="mailto:vedat@turkishweekly.net">vedat@turkishweekly.net</a></font></o:p></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">A. EINF&Uuml;HRUNG</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Die konstitutionellen Bewegungen w&auml;hrend der osmanischen Periode begannen gegen Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts. W&auml;hrend der Periode von 1789-1808 stellte sich Sultan Selim III. die Anordnung einer beratenden Versammlung vor, genannt das &bdquo;Meclis-i Meshveret&ldquo;</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1" name="_ftnref1" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn1"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[1]</span></span></a><font size="3"><font face="Times New Roman">. Dieses neue System (genannt das &bdquo;Nizam-i Cedid&ldquo;) wird als ein Hauptschritt in Richtung zum System der konstitutionellen Staatsform gesehen. Das &bdquo;Sened-i Ittifak&rdquo; oder Gr&uuml;ndungsurkunde des B&uuml;ndnisses wird als das erste wichtige Dokument vom Gesichtspunkt einer konstitutionellen Ordnung gesehen. W&auml;hrend die Gr&uuml;ndungsurkunde von 1808 die Machtaus&uuml;bung des Sultans einschr&auml;nkte, beauftragte sie einige Beh&ouml;rden zu einem Senat, genannt das &bdquo;Ayan&ldquo;. Die Gr&uuml;ndungsurkunde ist ein bedeutendes Dokument, was<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>auch durch den Sultan erkannt wurde. Die Tanzimat Reformzeitrechnung begann mit der Verk&uuml;ndung des Reformerlasses,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>&bdquo;G&uuml;lhane Hatt-i Humayunu (=der Ferman)&ldquo;. Dem<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>osmanischen Sultan wurden versichert, dass seine Grundrechte respektiert w&uuml;rden. Dieses Dokument hatte besondere Bedeutung wegen seiner Erkennung der Gleichberechtigung in der Ausbildung, in der Regierungsverwaltung von Nichtmuslimen. Das Grundgesetz von 1876 gew&auml;hrleistete die Unabh&auml;ngigkeit der Gerichte und garantierte die Sicherheit der Richter. Der wichtigste Schritt des Wegs zum Rechtsgrundsatz war die Einf&uuml;hrung<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>der Kanun-i Esasi (Grundgesetz von 1876). Mit diesem Grundgesetz begann<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>die Periode, die als das erste &bdquo;Mesrutiyet&ldquo;, oder erste konstitutionelle Periode bekannt ist.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></font></font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font size="3"><font face="Times New Roman">Der Grundbegriff des Grundgesetzes von 1876 ist, dass, obwohl<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>die Machtaus&uuml;bung nur wenig eingeschr&auml;nkt wurde, dennoch zum ersten Mal,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>ein parlamentarisches System eingef&uuml;hrt wurde. Diese Verfassung<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>umfasst u.a.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Bestimmungen &uuml;ber Grundrechte und Freiheiten, die Unabh&auml;ngigkeit der Gerichte und die Sicherheit der Richter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></font></font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Die osmanischen Staatsm&auml;nner, die auf den seit dem Tanzimat-Erla&szlig; nach europ&auml;ischem Muster eingerichteten Schulen ihre geistige Pr&auml;gung erhielten, vor allem Mithat Pascha</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2" name="_ftnref2" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn2"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[2]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, bestanden beharrlich darauf, dass dem Kaiserreich eine moderne Verfassung gegeben werden m&uuml;ssen. Es wurde deshalb beschlossen, den geistig umnachteten Sultan Murat IV. zur Abdankung zu zwingen und dem Kronprinzen Abd&uuml;lhamit II. auf den Thron zu verhelfen. Die erste osmanische Verfassung, die ausdr&uuml;cklich als Grundgesetz (Konstitution) bezeichnet wurde</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3" name="_ftnref3" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn3"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[3]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"> ist im Jahre 1876 von Sultan Abd&uuml;lhamit II. dem Volk oktroyiert worden. Aus diesem Grund wird das am 23. Dezember 1876 ver&ouml;ffentlichte Grundgesetz in der t&uuml;rkischen politischen und juristischen Literatur als das wichtigste Ereignis der &bdquo;ersten konstitutionellen Monarchie&ldquo; betrachtet</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4" name="_ftnref4" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn4"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[4]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Am 23. Dezember 1876 wurde ein vergleichsweise umfassendes Staatsgrundgesetz verk&uuml;ndet, dem nach Inhalt und Struktur die belgische Verfassung von 1831 und die preu&szlig;ische Verfassung</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5" name="_ftnref5" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn5"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[5]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"> von 1851 zugrunde lag</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6" name="_ftnref6" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn6"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[6]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Auch bei dieser Verfassung handelt es sich um Herrschaftsrecht des Sultans, dessen theokratische<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Souver&auml;nit&auml;t legitimiert blieb.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">B. DIE GESCHICHTLICHE ENTWICKLUNG DER VERFASSUNG IM OSMANISCHEN REICH 1808-1876</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">1. Der B&uuml;ndnisvertrag: Sened-i Ittifak (1808)</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Der Beginn der modernen Verfassungsentwicklung der T&uuml;rkei<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>wird in der Regel auf 1808 datiert</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7" name="_ftnref7" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn7"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[7]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Als es dem Sultan Mahmut II gelang, den Autorit&auml;tsverfall der osmanischen Zentralgewalt durch einen &bdquo;B&uuml;ndnisvertrag&ldquo; (Sened-i Ittifak) mit den Landherren</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8" name="_ftnref8" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn8"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[8]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"> aufzuhalten. Dieser B&uuml;ndnisvertrag ist noch nicht als Verfassung im Sinne des Konstitutionalismus des 19. Jahrhunderts anzusehen. Tats&auml;chlich &auml;hnelt er eher der Magna Charta</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9" name="_ftnref9" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn9"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[9]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Er diente der pragmatischen L&ouml;sung eines Machtkampfes zwischen der feudalen Zentralgewalt und den Landherren</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10" name="_ftnref10" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn10"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[10]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"> und ist nicht etwa das Ergebnis einer politischen Ideengeschichte</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11" name="_ftnref11" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn11"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[11]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Die absolutistische Gewalt des Sultans und seine Verwaltung &uuml;ber den osmanischen Untertanen blieb von diesem B&uuml;ndnisvertrag unber&uuml;hrt.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">2. Der Reformerla&szlig;: G&uuml;lhane Hatt-i H&uuml;mayunu (1839)</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Mit dem ber&uuml;hmten Reformerla&szlig; begann die Kodifikationsbewegung (kanunlastirma hareketi) in der T&uuml;rkei</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12" name="_ftnref12" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn12"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[12]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Damit begannen auch die Reformen des osmanischen Verfassungssystems (Tanzimat- Periode)</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13" name="_ftnref13" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn13"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[13]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. In dem Reformerla&szlig; manifestierte sich erstmals Gedankengut der Franz&ouml;sischen Revolution in einem t&uuml;rkischen Text von verfassungsrechtlicher Bedeutung</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14" name="_ftnref14" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn14"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[14]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Der Erla&szlig; enth&auml;lt ein ausdr&uuml;ckliches Bekenntnis zur Geltung des Scheriatsrechts (Islamischesrecht). Er betonte die Bedeutung der Pers&ouml;nlichkeit des Menschen (Leben und Ehre). Zahlreiche Historiker verschiedener Nationalit&auml;ten betrachteten den am 3. November 1839 von Sultan Abd&uuml;lmecit und dem Gro&szlig;wesir Resit Pascha erlassenen Reformerla&szlig; von G&uuml;lhane als die erste konstitutionelle Charta</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15" name="_ftnref15" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn15"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[15]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Der Inhalt des Reformerlasses von 1839 kann wie folgt zusammengefasst werden:</font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">a) Es besteht ein dringendes Bed&uuml;rfnis, die modernen Gesetze zu kodifizieren</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16" name="_ftnref16" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn16"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[16]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">; b) Durch diese Gesetze m&uuml;ssen folgende Prinzipien gew&auml;hrleistet sein: die Sicherheit der Personen, die Garantie von Leben, Ehre und Besitz; die Steuergerechtigkeit, die gleichm&auml;&szlig;ige Einziehung der milit&auml;rpflichtigen Personen und die Neuordnung der Wehrpflicht, c) Der Sultan und seine Regierung verpflichten sich, allen B&uuml;rgern die oben genannten Grundrechte ohne Unterschied der Rasse und Religion anzuerkennen; d) Die Regierung wird alle notwendigen verwaltungsrechtlichen und gesetzlichen Ma&szlig;nahmen (strafrechtliche Sanktionen inbegriffen) ergreifen, um diese Grunds&auml;tze im politischen Bereich zu realisieren</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn17" name="_ftnref17" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn17"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[17]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font size="3"><font face="Times New Roman">Nach dem Reformerla&szlig; d&uuml;rfte keine geheime oder &ouml;ffentliche Hinrichtung ohne die Feststellung der Schuld durch ein scheriatrechtliches Gerichtsverfahren stattfinden. Niemand darf die Ehre der Anderen<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>verletzen. Die strafrechtliche Haftung auch der Erben sei abzuschaffen. Jedermann, ob Muslim oder Nichtmuslim, sei in seinen Rechten gleich.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span></font></font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Der Reformerla&szlig; steht schon mitten in der allgemeinen Reformbewegung, die von Sultan Mahmut II. in der Armee und &uuml;ber die Milit&auml;rausbildung auf den Gebieten der Kultur und der Staatsorganisation gef&ouml;rdert bzw. eingeleitet worden war</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn18" name="_ftnref18" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn18"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[18]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Insbesondere im Hinblick auf den Ansatz zur Gleichstellung von Muslimen und Nichtmuslimen (gayrim&uuml;slim), hat auch die zunehmende Bedeutung der Au&szlig;enpolitik und des Einflusses der gro&szlig;en europ&auml;ischen Staaten eine Rolle gespielt</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn19" name="_ftnref19" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn19"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[19]</span></span></a><font size="3"><font face="Times New Roman">.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></font></font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Der Erla&szlig; steht am Anfang der umfangreichen Kodifizierungs-versuche auf verschiedenen Rechtsgebieten und der Rezeption des ausl&auml;ndischen Rechts im Osmanischen Reich. Es gilt als die erste &bdquo;konstitutionelle Charta&ldquo;</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn20" name="_ftnref20" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn20"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[20]</span></span></a><font size="3"><font face="Times New Roman">. Zwar versprach der Sultan im Erla&szlig;, dass er die Gesetze achten werde, doch blieb er sowohl als Gesetzgeber, als auch als Souver&auml;n letztlich v&ouml;llig frei.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></font></font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Die im Reformerla&szlig; von 1839 aufgez&auml;hlten Garantien konnten aus folgenden Gr&uuml;nden nicht verwirklicht werden: a) Die geistigen und sozialen Bedingungen dieser Periode, besonders das Niveau der herrschenden Klasse war f&uuml;r die Durchf&uuml;hrung auf diesen Grunds&auml;tzen aufgebauten politische Ordnung nicht g&uuml;nstig; b) Die demographische Struktur des osmanischen Reiches wies einen zu heterogenem Charakter auf. Aus diesem Grunde trugen die versprochenen Freiheiten, welche ohne R&uuml;cksicht auf Geschlecht, Rasse und Religion gew&auml;hrt wurden, nur zur St&auml;rkung<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>nationalistischer Aspirationen der<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>in Europa ans&auml;ssigen nicht assimilierten fremden Volksgruppen bei</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn21" name="_ftnref21" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn21"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[21]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Aus dieser Situation ergab sich eine ununterbrochene Welle au&szlig;enpolitischer Einmischungen, welche die Losl&ouml;sung der europ&auml;ischen Teile des osmanischen Reiches beschleunigten; c) Diese Entwicklung hat nochmals das soziologische Grundgesetz best&auml;tigt, dass eine Reformbewegung, die ohne R&uuml;cksicht auf die sozialen und politischen Realit&auml;ten blo&szlig; der pers&ouml;nlichen Initiative und dem Ansehen Einzelner entspringt, als vor&uuml;bergehender Versuch zum Scheitern verurteilt ist</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn22" name="_ftnref22" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn22"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[22]</span></span></a><font size="3"><font face="Times New Roman">.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span></font></font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Dennoch war der Reformerla&szlig; jedenfalls ein wichtiger Schritt im Rahmen einer modernen Verfassungsentwicklung</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn23" name="_ftnref23" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn23"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[23]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">3) Der Erneuerungserla&szlig;: Islahat Hatt-i H&uuml;mayunu (1856)</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Die im Reformerla&szlig; von 1839 enthaltenen Versprechen wurden kaum eingehalten. Jedenfalls wird dies von dem Sultan Abd&uuml;lmecit als Begr&uuml;ndung im Zusammenhang mit einem weiteren Ferman angegeben (1845)</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn24" name="_ftnref24" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn24"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[24]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Schlie&szlig;lich waren es der verlorene Krimkrieg und der anschlie&szlig;ende Pariser Frieden, die- &uuml;ber den Druck der Siegerm&auml;chte- zu einem weiteren Erla&szlig; f&uuml;hrten. In erster Linie stellte er eine Erneuerung des Reformerlasses (Islahat Hatt-i H&uuml;mayunu, auch: Islahat Fermani) dar. Er enthielt jedoch auch Erg&auml;nzungen. Wie schon beim Reformerla&szlig; war auch beim Erneuerungserla&szlig; wieder das zentrale Anliegen, den Status der nichtmuslimischen Minderheiten (gayrim&uuml;slim azinlik) zu verbessern. Auch hier wieder &uuml;ber eine Kombination von Gleichstellung mit den muslimischen Untertanen, die sich durch die Erlasse nun langsam von &bdquo;Untertanen&ldquo; (tebaa) zu &bdquo;B&uuml;rgern&ldquo; (vatandas) emanzipierten. Er enth&auml;lt auch das Versprechen der Gew&auml;hrung von Grundrechten. </font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Nichtmuslimische Gemeinden durften eigene Schulen gr&uuml;nden und unterrichten. Der Zugang zum &ouml;ffentlichen Dienst sollte f&uuml;r alle gleich sein. Au&szlig;erdem sollte die Gerichtsbarkeit ausgebaut werden und insbesondere dem Grundsatz der &Ouml;ffentlichkeit (aleniyet ilkesi, aciklik ilkesi) folgen</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn25" name="_ftnref25" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn25"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[25]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">C. DIE ERSTE VERFASSUNG DES<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>OSMANISCHEN REICHS<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>1876 (KANUN-I ESASI, I. MESRUTIYET)</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">1. Allgemeines</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Kanun-i Esasi ist die erste echte t&uuml;rkische Verfassung im Sinne des europ&auml;ischen Konstitutionalismus des 19. Jahrhunderts</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn26" name="_ftnref26" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn26"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[26]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Mit dieser Verfassung wurde die theokratische Legitimation staatlicher Herrschaftsgewalt erstmals durch ein demokratisches Legitimations-element eingeschr&auml;nkt. Diese Verfassung enthielt sowohl Bestimmungen zur Staatsorganisation als auch zur Regelung der Beziehungen zwischen B&uuml;rger und Staat.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Bei der Ausarbeitung der neuen Verfassung und des neuen Rechtsystems (Mesrutiyet) spielte der Gro&szlig;wesir Midhat Pascha</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn27" name="_ftnref27" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn27"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[27]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"> die Hauptrolle. Das neue Grundgesetz (Kanun-i Esasi) wurde am 23. Dezember <st1:metricconverter productid="1876 in" w:st="on">1876 in</st1:metricconverter> Istanbul verk&uuml;ndet</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn28" name="_ftnref28" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn28"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[28]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Es<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>bestand aus 119 Artikeln. Es wiederholte die bereits im Reformerla&szlig; (Tanzimat) verk&uuml;ndeten Grundprinzipien: Die Unteilbarkeit des Reiches wurde bekr&auml;ftigt<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>und<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>der Islam als Staatsreligion betonte. Nach dem Grundgesetz sollte ferner ein gesetzgebendes Organ gegr&uuml;ndet werden, das sich im wesentlichen an den Gegebenheiten des parlamentarischen Systems in Belgien orientierte</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn29" name="_ftnref29" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn29"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[29]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Dieser Verfassungstext wurde nicht von den Abgeordneten, also nicht von den Vertretern des Volkes, vorbereitet und wurde nicht durch ein Referendum (also: vom Volk) entschieden</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn30" name="_ftnref30" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn30"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[30]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Kann man deswegen sagen, dass Kanun-i Esasi von 1876 keine Verfassung ist? Im Grunde genommen nein, wenn man sein Zustande Kommen ber&uuml;cksichtigt</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn31" name="_ftnref31" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn31"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[31]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. &bdquo;Hinsichtlich dieses Aspekts hatte Kanun-i Esasi nach heute geltende Kriterien im Verfassungsrecht keine Verfassungseigenschaften&ldquo;<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>sagte<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Okandan</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn32" name="_ftnref32" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn32"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[32]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Dennoch wird es am richtigsten<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>sein, dass man der Kanun-i Esasi nicht heutige Mentalit&auml;t und Kriterien<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>zugrundelegt, sondern<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>im Hinblick auf die damaligen Kriterien auslegt und bewertet. In diesem Zusammenhang ist<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>die &bdquo;Kanun-i Esasi&ldquo; als<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Verfassung<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>zu bezeichnen,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>ebenso wie die des damaligen Frankreichs von 1814 und Italiens von 1848<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Verfassungen sind</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn33" name="_ftnref33" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn33"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[33]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Diese Verfassungen sind n&auml;mlich in dem Zeitraum zwischen<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>der Autokratie und der Monarchie verk&uuml;ndet</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn34" name="_ftnref34" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn34"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[34]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">2. Das Sultanat </font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Die Verfassung von 1876 verfolgte mehr das Ziel, dem Sultan eine starke Machtstellung zu verschaffen, als die Rechte der Nation und der B&uuml;rger zu garantieren</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn35" name="_ftnref35" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn35"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[35]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Die Staatsorganisation war nach wie vor v&ouml;llig auf den Sultan zugeschnitten</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn36" name="_ftnref36" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn36"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[36]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">.</font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Nach osmanischem Gewohnheitsrecht wird Thronerbe das &auml;lteste m&auml;nnliche Mitglied der Dynastie Osman</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn37" name="_ftnref37" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn37"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[37]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Das fand sich auch in dieser Verfassung. &bdquo;Die Souver&auml;nit&auml;t und das Kalifat geh&ouml;ren der Dynastie Osman,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>und gehen auf den &auml;ltesten Prinzen des Reiches &uuml;ber&ldquo; (Art. 3)</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn38" name="_ftnref38" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn38"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[38]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. &bdquo;Die Freiheitsrechte, das bewegliche und unbewegliche Privatverm&ouml;gen und die lebensl&auml;nglichen Zivilisten der Mitglieder der Dynastie Osman stehen unter der Garantie des allgemeinen Rechts&ldquo; (Art. 6). Der<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Sultan war als Kalif der Besch&uuml;tzer der islamischen Religion (Art. 4). Die Person<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>des Sultans war f&uuml;r heilig erkl&auml;rt und er war zu keinem gegen&uuml;ber f&uuml;r seine Taten zur Rechenschaft verpflichtet (Art. 5). Es gab keine verfassungsm&auml;&szlig;igen M&ouml;glichkeiten, den Sultan zur Verantwortung zu ziehen, wenn er gegen diese Verfassung verstie&szlig;</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn39" name="_ftnref39" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn39"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[39]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Zu seinen Hoheitsrechten geh&ouml;ren u.a.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>folgendes: &bdquo;die Ernennung und Absetzung der Minister, die Verleihung von W&uuml;rden, &Auml;mtern und Orden, die Aus&uuml;bung der Ernennung nach Ma&szlig;gabe der Privilegsbedingungen der privilegierten Provinzen, die M&uuml;nzpr&auml;gung, die Nennung seines Namens im &ouml;ffentlichen Gebet, der Abschlu&szlig; von Vertr&auml;gen mit fremden Staaten, die Erkl&auml;rung von Krieg und Frieden, der Oberbefehl &uuml;ber die Land- und Seestreitkr&auml;fte, Bef&ouml;rderung der Milit&auml;rpersonen, die Inkraftsetzung der Bestimmungen des geistlichen Rechts und der Gesetze, der Erla&szlig; von Verordnungen hinsichtlich der Gesch&auml;fte der &ouml;ffentlichen Verwaltung, die Milderung oder der Erla&szlig; der gesetzlichen Strafen, die Einberufung und Vertagung des Parlaments und erforderlichenfalls die Aufl&ouml;sung des Abgeordnetenhauses unter der Bedingung von Neuwahlen&ldquo; (Art. 7).</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Wie gesehen,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>der<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Sultan hatte das Recht, Minister zu ernennen und abzusetzen,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Vertr&auml;ge abzuschlie&szlig;en, Krieg und Frieden zu erkl&auml;ren, die bewaffneten Kr&auml;fte zu beherrschen, alle weltlichen Gesetze<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>zu verk&uuml;nden,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>das Scheriat (Islamischenrecht) und Gerichtsstrafen zu &uuml;berwachen, und das Parlament aufzul&ouml;sen</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn40" name="_ftnref40" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn40"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[40]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Anstatt<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>des Parlaments war der Sultan f&uuml;r<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Geldpr&auml;gung verantwortlich. Au&szlig;erdem mussten sie in den Freitaggebeten seinen Namen erw&auml;hnen.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Au&szlig;erdem hatte der Sultan gem&auml;&szlig; dem Artikel 113, Abs. 3 die Befugnis alle, die die Sicherheit des Staates verletzt hatten, aus den L&auml;ndern des Reiches auszuweisen (Verbannungsrecht). &bdquo;Es liegt allein in der Hand des Sultans, diejenigen Personen, hinsichtlich derer auf Grund zuverl&auml;ssiger polizeilicher Ermittlungen feststeht, dass sie die Sicherheit der Regierung beeintr&auml;chtigt haben, aus dem kaiserlichen Gebiet auszuweisen und zu entfernen&ldquo; (Art. 113, Abs.3). Dank diesem Artikel blieb Abd&uuml;lhamit II so leistungsf&auml;hig wie seine Vorg&auml;nger</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn41" name="_ftnref41" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn41"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[41]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Mithat Pascha war selbst das erste Opfer</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn42" name="_ftnref42" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn42"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[42]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">3. Die Exekutive</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Die dynastische Souver&auml;nit&auml;t betonte das monarchistische Prinzip des Reiches und gleichzeitig auch seinem theokratischen Aspekt</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn43" name="_ftnref43" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn43"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[43]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Die Religion des Osmanischen Reiches war der Islam (Art. 11).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Nach dem Art. 4 war der Sultan als Kalif der Besch&uuml;tzer der islamischen Religion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Der Scheich-&uuml;l Islam (Seyh&uuml;lislam), h&ouml;chste geistliche Person des Islam, befand sich in der Regierung und in der Staatsverwaltung (Art. 27)</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn44" name="_ftnref44" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn44"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[44]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. </font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Wem geh&ouml;rt die Herrschaft nach dieser Verfassung? Auch in der Monarchischen Verwaltung k&ouml;nnte die Herrschaft dem Volk geh&ouml;ren, wie in der franz&ouml;sischen Verfassung von 1791 (Art. 1, 2, 4)</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn45" name="_ftnref45" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn45"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[45]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Dar&uuml;ber gab es in der Kanun-i Esasi keine eindeutige Regelung. Dennoch war es klar, dass die Souver&auml;nit&auml;t dem Sultan geh&ouml;rt. Zu diesem Ergebnis kommt man aus drei Gr&uuml;nden:</font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">1- Es gibt keine Regelung, dass die Herrschaft dem Volk zusteht.</font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">2- Bestimmungen<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>&uuml;ber die dynastische Herrschaft im Grundgesetz..</font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">3- Der Sultan befand sich an erster Stelle in der Staatsverwaltung</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn46" name="_ftnref46" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn46"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[46]</span></span></a><font size="3"><font face="Times New Roman">.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span></font></font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Der Kalif- Sultan war die Spitze des Reichs und auch die Spitze der Regierung. Der Pr&auml;sident und die Mitglieder des Ministerrats wurde vom Sultan ernannt und abgesetzt (Art. 7, 27). Der Sultan hatte auch die Berechtigung,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>den Pr&auml;sidenten des Senats zu w&auml;hlen (Art. 60). Der Pr&auml;sident und zwei Vizepr&auml;sidenten des Abgeordnetenhauses wurden unter den im Abgeordnetenhaus ausgew&auml;hlten Kandidaten direkt vom Sultan ernannt (Art. 77). Der Sultan war der einzige W&auml;hler <span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;</span>des Ministerrats</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn47" name="_ftnref47" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn47"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[47]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. </font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Dieser Ministerrat k&ouml;nnte nicht im modernen Sinne als &bdquo;Ministerrat&ldquo; bezeichnet werden, wegen dieser und anderer umfangreicher Befugnisse des Sultans. Der Ministerrat hatte keine Verantwortung gegen&uuml;ber dem Parlament, aber<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>gegen&uuml;ber dem Sultan. Die beiden Kammern hatten keine Berechtigung, die Abgeordneten gegen&uuml;ber dem Sultan zu verteidigen</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn48" name="_ftnref48" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn48"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[48]</span></span></a><font size="3"><font face="Times New Roman">.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span></font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><o:p><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">&nbsp;</font></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Die Gesetzesinitiative stand der Regierung zu, den Parlamentsmitgliedern nur nach vorheriger Zustimmung durch den Sultan</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn49" name="_ftnref49" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn49"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[49]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Der Sultan entschied auch &uuml;ber den Zusammentritt und die Aufl&ouml;sung des Parlaments. Der durch den Vertrag von &bdquo;Ayastefanos&ldquo; beendete, der ungl&uuml;ckliche t&uuml;rkisch-russische Krieg gab dem Sultan einen Vorwand am 1. Februar 1878 das Abgeordnetenhaus zu schlie&szlig;en.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Der Sultan vermied die Aufl&ouml;sung des Parlaments, doch wurde das Abgeordnetenhaus entgegen Artikel 43 der Verfassung<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>33 Jahre lang (bis 1908) nicht mehr einberufen. Dadurch wurde die Verfassung zwar nicht ausdr&uuml;cklich au&szlig;er Kraft gesetzt, aber praktisch suspendiert.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font size="3"><font face="Times New Roman"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;</span>Der Ministerrat tritt unter dem Vorsitz des Gro&szlig;wesirs<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>zusammen (Art. 28). Jeder Minister war f&uuml;r die Taten seiner Abteilung verantwortlich (Art. 31). Das Kabinett k&ouml;nnte<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>das Gesetzgebungs-verfahren einleiten, einschlie&szlig;lich Gesetzesvorschl&auml;ge unterbreiten,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>um vorhandene Gesetze zu &auml;ndern. Wenn die Versammlung ein wichtiges vorgeschlagenes Gesetz zur&uuml;ckwies, h&auml;tte der Sultan das Parlament aufl&ouml;sen k&ouml;nnen und eine Wiederwahl innerhalb einer begrenzten Periode fordern k&ouml;nnen (Art. 35). Zus&auml;tzlich in den F&auml;llen &bdquo;dringender Notwendigkeit, wenn die Generalversammlung nicht tagt, kann der Ministerrat<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>wegen der Ver&auml;nderungsgefahr zum Schutz der<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>allgemeinen Sicherheit&ldquo; Gesetze erlassen. &bdquo;Wenn zu einem Zeitpunkt, an dem das Parlament nicht tagt, sich die dringende Notwendigkeit zum Schutze des Staates vor einer Gefahr oder einer St&ouml;rung der &ouml;ffentlichen Sicherheit ergibt und die Zeit nicht ausreicht, um zur Beratung der erforderlichen Gesetze das Parlament zur Sitzung einzuberufen, so besitzen die vom Ministerrat ergangene Beschl&uuml;sse, soweit sie nicht gegen die Bestimmungen des Grundgesetzes versto&szlig;en, kraft kaiserlichen Erlasses vorl&auml;ufig die Wirkung und Kraft von Gesetzen bis zu einem in einer Sitzung des Abgeordnetenhauses gefassten Beschlu&szlig;&ldquo; (Art. 36).</font></font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Jeder Minister k&ouml;nnte Sitzungen von beiden Kammern beiwohnen oder von einem Untergebenen vertreten werden, und er k&ouml;nnte vor ihnen auch sprechen, wann immer er es w&uuml;nscht (Art. 37). Wenn die Versammlung ihn f&uuml;r Erkl&auml;rungen einbestellte, musste er pers&ouml;nlich erscheinen oder ein Vertreter schicken, aber er k&ouml;nnte &bdquo;seine Verteidigung auch aussetzen&ldquo;, wenn er es w&uuml;nscht und die Versammlung ohne irgendeinen zwingender Grund verlassen (Art. 38). </font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">4. Die Legislative </font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Gem&auml;&szlig; dem Grundgesetz von 1876 wurde ein gesetzgebendes Organ gebildet: Das Parlament. Es<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>wurde in zwei Kammern geteilt: Das Abgeordnetenhaus (Meclis-i Mebusan) und der Senat (Meclis-i Ayan).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>W&auml;hrend der Senat vom Sultan berufen werden sollte, sollten die Abgeordneten gew&auml;hlt werden. Die Mitglieder des Senats musste unmittelbar vom Sultan ernannt werden. Die Mitgliederzahl des Senats durfte h&ouml;chstens ein Drittel der Zahl der Mitglieder des Abgeordnetenhauses betragen (Art. 60)</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn50" name="_ftnref50" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn50"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[50]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Sie k&ouml;nnten lebenslang in diesem Dienst bleiben. (Art. 62) Die Mitglieder<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>des Senats sollten zumindest vierzig Jahre alt sein und einen nennenswerten Land-Dienst geleistet haben. &bdquo;In diese Stellung sind geeignete Pers&ouml;nlichkeiten aus dem Kreis der ehemaligen Minister, Gouverneure, Korpskommandanten, Heeresrichter, Botschafter, Patriarchen und Oberrabbiner, aus der Generalit&auml;t des Heeres und der Marine sowie auch andere Personen, welche die erforderlichen Eigenschaften besitzen, zu berufen&ldquo; (Art. 62). Sie waren zwar lebensl&auml;nglich anberaumt aber verloren ihre Mitgliedschaft im Senat, wenn<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>sie &bdquo;auf eigenen Antrag vom Staat in eine andere Stellung berufen wurden&ldquo; (Art. 62). </font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Wie schon festgestellt ist<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>dieser Senat<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>ohne Wahl des Volkes direkt vom Sultan gebildet. Deswegen hatte er<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>im modernen Sinne keine demokratische Eigenschaft</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn51" name="_ftnref51" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn51"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[51]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. </font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Die Abgeordneten sollten vom Volk gew&auml;hlt werden. Die Mitgliederzahl des Abgeordnetenhauses wird so bestimmt, dass auf je 50.000 m&auml;nnliche B&uuml;rger je ein Abgeordneter kommt (Art. 65)</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn52" name="_ftnref52" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn52"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[52]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Die Wahl basierte auf dem Grundsatz der geheimen Stimmabgabe und sie wurde entsprechend besonderes Gesetz durchgef&uuml;hrt (Art. 66). Eine Direktwahl aber war nur f&uuml;r die Gro&szlig;st&auml;dte in Aussicht genommen. Im &uuml;brigen Reichsgebiet hatten die Stimmberechtigten &ouml;rtliche R&auml;te, die vorwiegend aus Beamten bestanden, zu w&auml;hlen, welche ihrerseits die Abgeordneten bestimmen sollten. Zudem ist die Beteiligung s&auml;mtlicher Religionsgemeinschaften am Parlament vorgesehen</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn53" name="_ftnref53" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn53"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[53]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. </font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Bedingungen im Abgeordnetenhaus war f&uuml;r vier Jahren und jedes Mitglied vertrat nicht nur sein Wahlkreis sondern die ganze Nation,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>(Art. 71). Zudem<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>musste er auch ans&auml;ssig in dem Bezirk sein, um ein Kandidat zu werden (Art. 72).</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Das Abgeordnetenhaus war die erste gew&auml;hlte Kammer vom Volk. Zum ersten Mal im Osmanischen Reich beteiligte sich das Volk an der Staatsverwaltung. Zwar hatte dieses Abgeordnetenhaus begrenzte Befugnisse,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>aber dadurch dass es bestimmt wurde, hatte der Sultan<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>nicht mehr die Souver&auml;nit&auml;t<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>f&uuml;r sich ganz allein </font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn54" name="_ftnref54" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn54"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[54]</span></span></a><font size="3"><font face="Times New Roman">.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></font></font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Das Parlament wurde zum ersten Mal am 7. M&auml;rz 1877 vom Sultan einberufen. Beide Kammern des Parlaments traten j&auml;hrlich vom<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>ersten November bis zum ersten M&auml;rz zusammen (Art. 42, 43). Der Sultan konnte &bdquo;das Parlament auch vor dem gesetzlich bestimmten Zeitpunkt er&ouml;ffnen und die festgelegte Sitzungsdauer verk&uuml;rzen oder verl&auml;ngern&ldquo; (Art. 44). Die Er&ouml;ffnungszeremonie begann in der Anwesenheit des Sultans, oder in seiner Vertretung des Gro&szlig;wesirs, mit<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>kaiserlichen Reden &bdquo;welche sich auf die innere Lage des Reichs und seine ausw&auml;rtigen Beziehungen w&auml;hrend des laufenden Jahres und die im n&auml;chsten Jahr zu ergreifenden Ma&szlig;nahmen und beabsichtigten Unternehmungen bezogen (Art. 45). </font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Alle Mitglieder waren frei, um ihre Meinungen im Parlament auszusprechen und Stimmen abzugeben. Sie durften nicht w&auml;hrend der Parlamentsberatungen irgendwie verfolgt werden, &ldquo;es sei denn, dass sie gegen die Gesch&auml;ftsordnung des Parlaments versto&szlig;en haben&bdquo; (Art. 47). Alle Mitglieder des Parlaments waren im Amt von der Festnahme gefreit, es sei denn, ihre Kammer wurde durch Mehrheitsbeschlu&szlig;<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>von der Immunit&auml;t aufgehoben (Art. 48, 79). Sie k&ouml;nnten nicht in beide Kammern oder in einer gehobener Stellung zu gleichen Zeit bedienen (Art. 50, 62). &bdquo;Diejenigen, die auf eigenen Antrag vom Staat in eine andere Stellung berufen werden, verloren ihre Mitgliedschaft im Senat&ldquo; (Art. 62).</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font size="3"><font face="Times New Roman">Gesetzgebende Faktoren waren der Sultan und die beiden Kammern<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>(Art. 54). Die Gesetzgebung war so geregelt, dass allein der Sultan das Recht hatte, Gesetzesinitiativen einzubringen. Die Abgeordneten verf&uuml;gten lediglich &uuml;ber das Abstimmungsrecht. Somit hatte das Parlament im Bereich die Gesetzgebung nicht umfassende Berechtigung. Die Gesetze wurden durch die beiden Kammern genehmigt. Gesetzentw&uuml;rfe wurden zun&auml;chst im Abgeordnetenhaus und alsdann im Senat beraten. Der Gro&szlig;wesir &uuml;bermittelte<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>die genehmigten Gesetzesentw&uuml;rfe zum Sultan (Art. 52- 54). Die Gesetze sollten auf keinen Fall entgegen<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Prinzipien der Religion sein (Art. 64). Die Verhandlungen der Kammer sollten in t&uuml;rkischer Sprache gef&uuml;hrt werden (Art. 57).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></font></font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">In den Kammern sollte die Abstimmung entweder offen oder geheim durchgef&uuml;hrt werden. Der gefasste Beschlu&szlig; zur geheimen Abstimmung bedarf die Anwesenheit der<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Mitgliedermehrheit<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>(Art. 58).</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Das Parlament hatte das Recht, auch das Jahresbudgets zu w&auml;hlen, welches durch den Ministerrat eingelegt werden sollte<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>(Art. 99). Die Regierung k&ouml;nnte nicht Steuern sammeln, oder das Kapital zu verbrauchen, die nicht in dem Budget vorgesehen waren (Art. 97, 100). Der Sultan konnte sich nicht<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>die Entscheidung des Parlaments in diesem Bereich au&szlig;er Kraft setzen oder ignorieren, was er jedoch im Fall normaler Gesetze tun konnte.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Um seine Finanzgesch&auml;fte zu unterst&uuml;tzen, sollte das Abgeordnetenhaus seinen eigenen Rat der Buchhaltung (Divan-i Muhasebet) organisieren. W&auml;hrend die Mitglieder von &bdquo;Divan-i Muhasebat&ldquo; lebensl&auml;nglich durch den Sultan ernannt wurden, konnten durch eine Stimmenmehrheit die Mitglieder des Abgeordnetenhauses entlassen werden. Diese Bestimmungen gaben dem Parlament betr&auml;chtliche Steuerung &uuml;ber den T&auml;tigkeiten der Regierung, jedoch wurde diese Macht<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>durch Bestimmungen begrenzt.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font size="3"><font face="Times New Roman"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;</span>Das Haushaltsgesetz galt f&uuml;r ein Jahr. Seine Geltung darf nicht &uuml;ber dieses Jahr hinausgehen; &ldquo;Wenn jedoch wegen einiger au&szlig;ergew&ouml;hnlicher Umst&auml;nde das Abgeordnetenhaus, ohne den Staatshaushalt beschlossen hat, konnte die G&uuml;ltigkeitsdauer des Staatshaushalts bis zur n&auml;chsten Tagung<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>des Abgeordnetenhauses verl&auml;ngern, jedoch nicht &uuml;ber die Dauer eines Jahres hinaus&ldquo; (Art. 102).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></font></font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">5. Die Rechtsprechung</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Zu Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts herrschte im Osmanischen Reich das Kadi-System. Der Kadi geh&ouml;rte seit Gr&uuml;ndung des Osmanischen Reiches zu den ersten Repr&auml;sentanten osmanischer Staatsgewalt</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn55" name="_ftnref55" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn55"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[55]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. </font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Ganz im Sinne der islamisch-osmanischen Tradition gab es einerseits die relative Unabh&auml;ngigkeit der Kadis in ihrer Eigenschaft als Richter (hakim, yargic) und andererseits ihre N&auml;he sowohl zur &bdquo;Verwaltung&ldquo; als auch zur Geistlichkeit (ulema)</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn56" name="_ftnref56" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn56"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[56]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. </font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Laut dem Grundgesetz von 1876 wurde die Gerichtsbarkeit<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>unabh&auml;ngig geregelt. Es ging um die Sicherung der Richter. Die Richter durften nicht abgesetzt werden, solange sie es nicht selbst w&uuml;nscht. Dabei setzte die Verfassung diejenige Gerichtsorganisation voraus, die zum Zeitpunkt der Verk&uuml;ndung der Verfassung bestand: Die nach wie vor existierende Scheriatsgerichtsbarkeit. Die Scheriatsgerichte waren f&uuml;r die religi&ouml;sen Streitigkeiten zust&auml;ndig, und im modernen Sinne<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>neue Gerichte, die nach den Gesetzen funktionieren,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>wurden f&uuml;r andere Streitigkeiten gegr&uuml;ndet</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn57" name="_ftnref57" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn57"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[57]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font size="3"><font face="Times New Roman">Es gab den gesetzlichen Richter (kanuni hakim, yasal yargic) und den Grundsatz &bdquo;nulla poena sine lege&ldquo; (strafrechtlicher Grundsatz der Gesetzm&auml;&szlig;igkeit bzw. des Vorbehalts des Gesetzes). Die Richter sollten lebensl&auml;nglich ernannt werden (Art. 81). Die Gerichte wurden nach dem Gesetz organisiert (Art. 88) und Einmischung war nicht erlaubt. &bdquo;Die Gerichte sind von Eingriffen jeder Art frei&ldquo; (Art.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>86). Laut diesem Grundgesetz gab es zum ersten Mal den Staatsanwalt im Gericht, um die &ouml;ffentlichen Interessen zu verteidigen.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></font></font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Die<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Scheriatsgerichte wurden f&uuml;r<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>die Muslimen den religi&ouml;sen Angelegenheiten beibehalten, w&auml;hrend Nichtmuslimen in solchen F&auml;llen zu ihren eigenen Religionsgerichten<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>gingen. Au&szlig;erdem wurde ein neues hohes Gericht (Divan-i Ali) erstellt, um die Anklagen gegen die Mitglieder der Regierung<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>zu h&ouml;ren (Art.92).</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">6. Grundrechte und Freiheiten der B&uuml;rger</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">In einem Grundrechtsteil von neunzehn Artikeln (Art 8- 26) wurden allen Osmanen pers&ouml;nliche Freiheitsrechte, die Religionsfreiheit, ein Petitionsrecht, die Unterrichtsfreiheit, das Eigentum und die Unverletzlichkeit der Wohnung gew&auml;hrleistet.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Alle Personen des Reiches wurden Osmanen genannt, welcher<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Religion<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>auch immer angeh&ouml;rten. &bdquo;Alle Personen, welche Untertanen des Osmanischen Reiches sind, hei&szlig;en, welcher Religion und welchem religi&ouml;sen Bekenntnis sie auch angeh&ouml;ren, ausnahmslos Osmanen; die Eigenschaft als Osmane wird in den gesetzlich bestimmten F&auml;llen erworben und verloren&ldquo; (Art. 8). Alle Osmanen besa&szlig; einzelne Freiheit unter der Bedingung, dass sie nicht die Freiheit von anderen behinderte (Art. 9). Nach dem Artikel 17 des Grundgesetzes<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>waren alle Osmanen<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>vor dem Gesetz gleich. Sie hatten die gleichen Rechte und Pflichten gegen&uuml;ber dem Land, und uneingeschr&auml;nkte Religionsaus&uuml;bung (Art. 17).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Die Verfassung garantierte die Religionsfreiheit auch f&uuml;r die Nichtmuslime, die nun mit dem muslimischen Bev&ouml;lkerungsteil politisch gleichberechtigt sein sollten.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Der Islam blieb die offizielle Religion des Landes. </font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Die Teilnahme am Grundschulunterricht war f&uuml;r alle Osmanen obligatorisch (Art. 114). Es wurde erkl&auml;rt, dass die Aufnahme in &ouml;ffentliche Dienststellen nur von der F&auml;higkeit und vom Wissen der amtlichen Zustandsprache abhing (Art. 18, 19). &bdquo;Kenntnis des T&uuml;rkischen als der amtlichen Staatssprache ist die Voraussetzung daf&uuml;r, dass osmanische Staatsangeh&ouml;rige im Staatsdienst angestellt werden&ldquo; (Art. 18). Amtssprache sollte<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>auch k&uuml;nftig das Osmanisch-T&uuml;rkische sein, zu den &ouml;ffentlichen &Auml;mtern sollten indessen auch Nichtmuslimen zugelassen werden, vorausgesetzt, dass sie des T&uuml;rkischen m&auml;chtig waren.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Der Zugang zum &ouml;ffentlichen Dienst (kamu hizmeti) war also f&uuml;r<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>alle gleich geregelt</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn58" name="_ftnref58" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn58"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[58]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. </font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Allen Osmanen<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>wurde die<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>freie Aus&uuml;bung seiner Religion garantiert unter der Bedingung nur, dass &bdquo;kein Versto&szlig; der &ouml;ffentlichen Ordnung oder guten Sitten&ldquo; vorlag (Art. 11). </font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Es galt der Gleichbehandlungsgrundsatz, das Prinzip der Steuergerechtigkeit sowie der Steuer- und Abgaben- Erhebung nur auf der Grundlage eines Gesetzes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Andere Artikel beseitigten die willk&uuml;rliche Behandlung von Personen. &bdquo;Ohne Grundlage in einem Gesetz darf von niemandem Geld als Steuer oder Geb&uuml;hr oder unter einer anderen Bezeichnung erhoben werden&ldquo; (Art. 25).</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Die Presse war im Rahmen des Gesetzes frei (Art. 12). Das Privatleben der Wohnung war als unantastbar erkl&auml;rt: &bdquo;die Beh&ouml;rden k&ouml;nnen keinen Wohnsitz aus irgendwelchen Gr&uuml;nden in Beschlag nehmen, ausgenommen in<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>durch das Gesetz festgestellten F&auml;llen&ldquo; (Art. 22). Privates Eigentum konnte au&szlig;er<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>zu allgemeinen Zwecken und mit ausreichendem Ausgleich nicht mehr konfisziert werden (Art. 21). </font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font size="3"><font face="Times New Roman">Au&szlig;erdem gab es ein absolutes Folterverbot. &bdquo;Die Folter und jede andere Tortur sind endg&uuml;ltig und ausnahmslos verboten&ldquo; (Art. 26).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></font></font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">D. DIE GESCHICHTE DIE AUS DER VERFASSUNG FOLGT</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Abd&uuml;lhamit II war der geistige Vater der Verfassung von 1876. Er hatte Mithat Pascha zun&auml;chst nach &bdquo;Taif&ldquo; in die Verbannung geschickt und ihn sp&auml;ter im Gef&auml;ngnis erw&uuml;rgen lassen. Er begn&uuml;gte<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>sich nicht<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>mit dieser drastischen Ma&szlig;nahme, sondern versuchte seine Alleinherrschaft auch durch ein radikales Unterdr&uuml;ckungssystem zu festigen. All dies konnte jedoch die geistige Entwicklung und die Sehnsucht nach Freiheit nicht anhalten. Die als &bdquo;Jung-T&uuml;rken&ldquo; bezeichneten Intellektuellen gr&uuml;ndeten im Exil und in der Heimat ein geheimes Komitee unter dem Namen &bdquo;Freiheit und Fortschritt&ldquo;, dessen Ziel der Sturz des Absolutismus war.</font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Die despotische Herrschaft Abd&uuml;lhamits II endete &uuml;ber drei&szlig;ig Jahre sp&auml;ter in einer Revolte der jungt&uuml;rkischen Opposition (j&ouml;n t&uuml;rkler)</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn59" name="_ftnref59" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn59"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[59]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Nach seinem Ende April 1909 durch ein neu gew&auml;hltes Parlament erzwungenen R&uuml;cktritt wurde durch mehrere Gesetze die Verfassung von <st1:metricconverter productid="1876 in" w:st="on">1876 in</st1:metricconverter> einer Weise ge&auml;ndert, dass man von einem v&ouml;llig neuen Verfassungssystem sprechen konnte (im Jahre 1908 entstand die sogenannte zweite Konstitution)</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn60" name="_ftnref60" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn60"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[60]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Dieses System war nicht nur inhaltlich ein anderes, sondern hatte auch eine neue Legitimationsbasis: es handelte sich nicht mehr um das Herrschaftsrecht eines absolut souver&auml;nen Herrschers, sondern um das Produkt einer &Uuml;bereinkunft zwischen dem Sultan und dem &uuml;berwiegend demokratisch legitimierten Parlament. Die Verfassungs&auml;nderungen von 1909 f&uuml;hrten erstmals zur Einrichtung eines parlamentarischen Regierungssystems (parlamenter h&uuml;k&uuml;met sistemi) im Osmanischen Reich bzw. in der T&uuml;rkei. Dieses ausgewogene politische System der zweiten Konstitution endete mit dem Ausgang des ersten Weltkrieges und<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>dadurch den ausgel&ouml;sten innen- und au&szlig;enpolitischen Ereignissen.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font size="3"><font face="Times New Roman"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;</span>Vor allem<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>die Position des Sultans &auml;nderte sich mit bedeutenden Auswirkungen auf die Beziehungen zwischen gesetzgebender und vollziehender Gewalt. Die Einsetzung der Regierung hing nicht mehr vom Sultan ab, sondern war &uuml;ber ein Vertrauensvotum an die Zustimmung des Abgeordnetenhauses gebunden. Der Gro&szlig;wesir stellte nunmehr die Ministerliste auf, die Rolle des Sultans wurde auf die Zustimmung beschr&auml;nkt. Jeder neue Sultan hatte jetzt auf die Einhaltung der Verfassung und seine Treue zu Volk und Vaterland einen Eid zu leisten.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Mit dem<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Artikel 113, der ihm das Recht gab,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>unliebsame Gegner zu verbannen, wurde ihm ein wichtiges Herrschaftsinstrument entzogen. Im Rahmen ihrer Zust&auml;ndigkeiten waren der Ministerrat und die Minister dem Abgeordnetenhaus gegen&uuml;ber verantwortlich, wobei allerdings als Sanktion lediglich eine &bdquo;Bestrafung&ldquo; mit einer Verweigerung der Annahme von Haushaltsvorlagen zur Verf&uuml;gung stand. Die fortbestehende Nichtverantwortlichkeit des Sultans verlor die Bedeutung durch die entscheidende Abnahme seiner Allmacht</font></font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn61" name="_ftnref61" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn61"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[61]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Die Arbeit des Parlaments war nicht mehr von der Einberufung des Sultans abh&auml;ngig. Beide Kammern sollten jetzt j&auml;hrlich im Oktober (von selbst) zusammentreten. Die Aufl&ouml;sung des Abgeordnetenhauses durch den Sultan wurde erschwert, indem sie an die Zustimmung des Senats gebunden wurde</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn62" name="_ftnref62" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn62"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[62]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Die Gesetzesinitiative stand auch den Mitgliedern des Parlaments zu. Die Zustimmung des Sultans zu den verabschiedeten Gesetzentw&uuml;rfen hatte innerhalb von zwei Monaten zu erfolgen, so dass er &ndash;anders als unter der Verfassung von 1876- das Inkrafttreten von Gesetzen nicht mehr durch Unt&auml;tigkeit verhindern konnte.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Was den Grundrechtsteil angeht, so wurde der Pressefreiheit noch ein Zensurverbot</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn63" name="_ftnref63" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn63"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[63]</span></span></a><font size="3"><font face="Times New Roman"> beigef&uuml;gt, das Korrespondenzgeheimnis und die Vereinigungsfreiheit eingef&uuml;hrt und der Gesetzesvorbehalt bei der Unantastbarkeit der Person um das scheriatsrechtliche Gesetz erg&auml;nzt.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span></font></font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">E. SCHLUSS</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Das Grundgesetz von 1876 (Kanun-i Esasi) war das erste geschriebene Grundgesetz des osmanischen Reiches. Die neue Verfassung war nicht das Ergebnis eines, den Idealen demokratischer Herrschaftsform entgegen-strebenden nationalen, kollektiven Bewusstseins</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn64" name="_ftnref64" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn64"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[64]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">, und auch noch nicht Bestandteil bzw. Produkt einer bestimmten neuen politischen Kultur</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn65" name="_ftnref65" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn65"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[65]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Dazu f&uuml;hrte die oppositionelle Bewegung der Jung-Osmanen (genc osmanlilar), die seit Mitte der Neunziger Jahre zunehmenden Einflu&szlig; auf das geistige Leben der politischen Elite im Osmanischen Reich hatte</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn66" name="_ftnref66" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn66"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[66]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Das wesentliche Problem dieser Verfassung aber war das Fehlen von Garantien,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>nicht nur f&uuml;r deren Bestand, sondern vor allem auch f&uuml;r die Sicherung der Grundrechte</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn67" name="_ftnref67" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn67"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[67]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Zwar gab es ein Verbot der Aufhebung der Verfassung und ein Verfassungs&auml;nderungsverfahren mit Zweidrittelmehrheit, doch durfte dies nicht &uuml;ber die fortbestehende Allmacht des Sultans als Souver&auml;n hinwegt&auml;uschen.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Als Spitze der Exekutive war der Sultan frei bei der Ernennung des Groswesirs (Sadrazam, Ministerpr&auml;sident) und der Minister.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Der Gro&szlig;wesir, der Scheich-&uuml;l Islam und<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>die Minister hatte<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>die Verantwortung gegen&uuml;ber dem Sultan, nicht gegen&uuml;ber dem Parlament. Sie konnten jederzeit vom Sultan abgesetzt werden (Art. 7, 27)</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn68" name="_ftnref68" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn68"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[68]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Der Sultan<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>war Oberbefehlshaber der Armee und der Flotte. Der Sultan hatte keine Verantwortung gegen&uuml;ber der Exekutive, auch<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>nicht gegen&uuml;ber dem Parlament.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Seine im Grunde nach wie vor unbegrenzte Befugnisse unterlagen keinerlei Kontrolle. &Auml;u&szlig;erst problematisch, weil weder durch das Parlament durch irgendein Gericht zu kontrollieren, war die dem Sultan durch Artikel 113 der Verfassung einger&auml;umte Befugnis, jede Person des Landes zu verbannen (s&uuml;rg&uuml;n), die f&uuml;r die &bdquo;Regierung eine Gef&auml;hrdung&ldquo; darstellte (Verbannungsrecht). Deswegen wird die Verfassung von 1876 als &bdquo;die Verfassung einer konstitutionellen Monarchie&ldquo; bezeichnet</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn69" name="_ftnref69" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn69"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[69]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. </font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Trotz des Erlasses der Verfassungsurkunde war das osmanische Reich nach wie vor ein absolutistisch regiertes Staatswesen, denn der Sultan f&uuml;hrte die Regierung frei und unabh&auml;ngig, nach Ma&szlig;gabe seiner eigenen Ansicht.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Diese Verfassung blieb nur kurze Zeit effektiv in Kraft. Elf Monate sp&auml;ter l&ouml;ste der Sultan das Parlament auf, schickte die Abgeordneten in die Provinzen zur&uuml;ck und rief sie erst nach 33 Jahren wieder zusammen</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn70" name="_ftnref70" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn70"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[70]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">. Sultan Abd&uuml;lhamit II unterlie&szlig; es also, f&uuml;r<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>dreiunddrei&szlig;ig Jahre, das Parlament einzuberufen. Das geschah wieder<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>im Jahre 1908, und der Sultan handelte<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>auf Druck der Jungt&uuml;rken. Trotz mancher Ans&auml;tze einer Parlamentarisierung dauerte der Charakter des Regimes als einer theokratischen, meist absolutistischen Monarchie von 1876 bis 1920</font><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn71" name="_ftnref71" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftn71"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[71]</span></span></a><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">F. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Die Verfassung von 1876 hat folgende Eigenschaften:</font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">a) Die theokratischen und monarchischen Eigenschaften des osmanischen Reichs verblieben nach wie vor. Die Souver&auml;nit&auml;t stand der Dynastie Osman zu,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>und ging auf den &auml;ltesten Prinzen des Reichs &uuml;ber. Die kaiserliche Person des Sultans ist sakrosankt und nicht verantwortlich. </font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Die Religion des Osmanischen Reiches war der Islam. Der Senat hatte das Recht, zu pr&uuml;fen ob die Gesetze gegen die Grundprinzipien der Religion versto&szlig;en. Die geistlich h&ouml;chste Person, der sogenannte &bdquo;Seyh&uuml;lislam&ldquo;,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>war auch<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Mitglied des Ministerrats (Heyet-i V&uuml;kela). </font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">b) Mit dem Grundgesetz von 1876 ist das Parlament entstanden, das aus<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>zwei Kammern besteht:</font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Aus dem Abgeordnetenhaus (Meclis-i Mebusan) und dem Senat (Meclis-i Ayan). Auf Lebenszeit der Pr&auml;sident und die Mitglieder des Senats werden unmittelbar vom Sultan<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>ernannt. Die Mitglieder des Abgeordnetenhauses werden vom Volk<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>f&uuml;r vier Jahre gew&auml;hlt. Das erste Abgeordnetenhaus des osmanischen Reiches beruhte aber nicht auf der allgemeinen Wahl im Reich.</font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Zwar wurde nach dem Grundgesetz<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>das erste Parlament gegr&uuml;ndet, aber dieses System war weit entfernt von dem parlamentarischen System im Sinne des europ&auml;ischen konstitutionellen Systems.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">c) Das Vorschlagsrecht zum Erla&szlig; neuer Gesetze stand dem Ministerrat zu. Die Abgeordneten hatten auch das Recht, neue Gesetze vorzuschlagen, vorausgesetzt, der Sultan hat<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>zugestimmt. Um die zuerst im Abgeordnetenhaus und alsdann im Senat angenommene Gesetzesentw&uuml;rfe zu erlassen, mussten sie vom Sultan genehmigt und ver&ouml;ffentlicht werden. Dazu war keine Frist vorgesehen. Es hing also v&ouml;llig von der Wille des Sultans ab. </font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">d) Als der Pr&auml;sident des Reiches hatte<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>der Sultan viele Befugnisse. Diese Berechtigungen waren sehr umfassend: Der Sultan hatte das Recht, &uuml;ber den Zusammentritt und die Aufl&ouml;sung des Parlaments zu bestimmen. Die Gesetzesinitiative<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>durch die Parlamentsmitglieder sollte nur nach vorheriger Zustimmung durch den Sultan geschehen. Eine Verantwortlichkeit der Regierung bestand nur gegen&uuml;ber dem Sultan,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>nicht aber gegen&uuml;ber dem Parlament.</font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">e) In einem Grundrechtsteil vom Grundgesetz 1876 wurden die Grundrechte und die Freiheiten, die vorher auch schon durch vielseitige Urkunden verk&uuml;ndet waren, definiert. Unter diesen Rechten und Freiheiten waren, der Gleichberechtigungsgrundsatz, die Unantastbarkeit der Person, die Pressefreiheit, die Handelsfreiheit, das Petitionsrecht, die Ausbildungsfreiheit, das Recht f&uuml;r Zugang zum &ouml;ffentlichen Dienst, das Eigentum und die Unverletzlichkeit der Wohnung, das Folterverbot und das Prinzip der Steuergerechtigkeit. </font></p>
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<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="3">Diese durch das Grundgesetz gew&auml;hrleistete Grundrechte und Freiheiten wurden jedoch durch einen anderen Artikel des Grundgesetzes<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>fast v&ouml;llig entwertet. Gem&auml;&szlig; Artikel 113 des Grundgesetzes lag es in der Hand des Sultans allein, &bdquo;die Personen, hinsichtlich derer auf Grund zuverl&auml;ssiger polizeilicher Ermittlungen feststeht, dass sie die Sicherheit der Regierung beeintr&auml;chtigt haben, aus dem kaiserlichen Gebiet auszuweisen und zu entfernen&ldquo;.</font></p>
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<span style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: TR; mso-ansi-language: TR; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">*Seminar: Europ&auml;ische Verfassungsgeschichte (Uni Passau, 2001)</span><font face="Times New Roman" size="3"> </font>
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<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1" name="_ftn1" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref1"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Wayne</em>, The Ottoman Empire, S. 90; <em>Can</em>/<em>Akg&uuml;nd&uuml;z</em>, T&uuml;rk Hukuk Tarihi (Die t&uuml;rkische Rechtsgeschichte, S. 163 ff.; <em>Albrecht</em>, Das neue Reformwerk, 614: Es kostete ihn Thron und Leben.</font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2" name="_ftn2" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></a><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><em><span lang="DE"> Albrecht</span></em><span lang="DE">, Das neue Reformwerk, 630: Damals wollte England eine internationale Konferenz zusammenberufen, die f&uuml;r die slawischen Balkanprovinzen der T&uuml;rkei eine administrative Autonomie einf&uuml;hren sollte. Mithat Pascha, der damalige Gro&szlig;wesir des Reiches verhinderte den beabsichtigten tiefen Eingriff der Gro&szlig;m&auml;chte in die innere Politik des Reiches, indem er die Verfassungsurkunde ins Leben rief. </span></font></font></p>
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<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3" name="_ftn3" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref3"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[3]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Abadan</em>, Die Entstehung der T&uuml;rkei und ihre verfassungsrechtliche Entwicklung bis 1960, 358; Durch dieses Merkmal unterschied es sich von der einseitigen Charta von G&uuml;lhane. </font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4" name="_ftn4" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref4"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[4]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Abadan,</em> Die Entstehung der T&uuml;rkei und ihre verfassungsrechtliche Entwicklung bis 1960, 358.</font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn5" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5" name="_ftn5" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref5"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[5]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"> <em>Davison,</em> Turkey, A Short History, S. 101: Obwohl das Grundgesetz von Preu&szlig;en monarchistisches Merkmal hatte, hatte das Grundgesetz von Belgien liberalistische Eigenschaft. Zwar basierte das Grundgesetz von 1876 auf den beiden Verfassungen, aber die preu&szlig;ische Verfassung beeinflusste Kanun-i Esasi mehr als die belgische Verfassung. Die preu&szlig;ische Verfassung hatte n&auml;mlich mehr monarchistische Merkmal als die belgische Verfassung.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></font></font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn6" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6" name="_ftn6" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref6"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[6]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"> <em>Wedekind</em>, S.18; <em>Rumpf</em>,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Rechtsstaatsprinzip, S. 46; <em>Sarica</em>, Siyasal Tarih (politische Geschichte), S. 160.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span></font></font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn7" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7" name="_ftn7" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref7"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[7]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Schacht,</em> An Introduction to Islamic Law, S. 92; <em>Aldikacti</em>, Anayasa Hukukumuzun Gelismesi ve 1961 Anayasasi (Die Entwicklung unseres Verfassungsrechts und die Verfassung von 1961, S. 42; <em>&Uuml;cok</em>/<em>Mumcu</em>, T&uuml;rk Hukuk Tarihi, (T&uuml;rkische Rechtsgeschichte),<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>S. 313; <em>Rumpf</em>, Das t&uuml;rkische Verfassungssystem, S. 40: &bdquo;Der B&uuml;ndnisvertrag von 1808 bezeichnete als ein Schritt zur Erf&uuml;llung des Rechtsstaatsbegriffs&ldquo;.</font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn8" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8" name="_ftn8" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref8"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[8]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"> <em>Rumpf</em>, Rechtsstaatsprinzip, S. 37: &bdquo;Landherren&ldquo; (Ayan) ist nicht die Bezeichnung f&uuml;r einen homogenen Stand von &bdquo;Adligen&ldquo; oder Notabeln, sondern - anstelle des Begriffs der &bdquo;Landst&auml;nde&ldquo;&ndash; der Versuch, eine nichtverfasste Schicht privilegierten unter einem Nenner zusammenzufassen.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></font></font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn9" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9" name="_ftn9" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref9"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[9]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Rumpf</em>, Rechtsstaatsprinzip, S. 39.</font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn10" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10" name="_ftn10" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref10"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[10]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Soysal</em>, Anayasanin Anlami (die Bedeutung der Verfassung), S. 24. </font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn11" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11" name="_ftn11" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref11"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[11]</span></span></span></span></span></a><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><em><span lang="DE"> Rumpf</span></em><span lang="DE">, Rechtsstaatsprinzip, S. 37; <em>Hirsch</em>, Die Verfassung der T&uuml;rkischen Republik, S. 26: Nach der Ansicht des Autors, mit dem &bdquo;Sened-i Ittifak&ldquo; von 1808 begannen die Versuche, die Macht des Herrschers zu grenzen.</span></font></font></p>
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<div id="ftn12" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12" name="_ftn12" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref12"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[12]</span></span></span></span></span></a><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB"> </span><em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">Coulson</span></em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">, A History of Islamic Law, S. 151.<o:p></o:p></span></font></font></p>
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<div id="ftn13" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13" name="_ftn13" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref13"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[13]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"> &laquo;&nbsp;Tanzimat&nbsp;&raquo;= Reorganisierung<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span></font></font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn14" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14" name="_ftn14" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref14"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[14]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Abadan</em>, Die Entstehung der T&uuml;rkei und ihre verfassungsrechtliche Entwicklung bis 1960, 356; <em>Wayne</em>, The Ottoman Empire, S. 91 ff.</font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn15" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15" name="_ftn15" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref15"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[15]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> Dazu n&auml;her: <em>Abadan</em>, Tanzimat Fermani&rsquo;nin Tahlili (Analyse des Reformerlasses), Istanbul.</font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn16" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16" name="_ftn16" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref16"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[16]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Schacht,</em> An Introduction to<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Islamic Law, S. 92: Das Handelsgesetzbuch von 1850 war nach dem Tanzimat Erla&szlig; das erste wichtige Gesetz; http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/5.html; <em>Coulson</em>, A History of Islamic Law, S. 151. </font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn17" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn17" name="_ftn17" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref17"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[17]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Abadan</em>, Die Entstehung der T&uuml;rkei und ihre verfassungsrechtliche Entwicklung bis 1960, 357.</font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn18" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn18" name="_ftn18" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref18"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[18]</span></span></span></span></span></a><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB"> </span><em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">Lewis</span></em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">, The Emergence of Modern <st1:country-region w:st="on">Turkey</st1:country-region>, S. 77 ff., 94 ff.; <em>Shaw</em>/ <em>Shaw, </em></span><span lang="DE">History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Turkey</st1:place></st1:country-region>, </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">S. 1 ff., S. 36. ff.; <em>Rumpf</em>, Rechtsstaatsprinzip, S. 39.<o:p></o:p></span></font></font></p>
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<div id="ftn19" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn19" name="_ftn19" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref19"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[19]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Soysal</em>, Anayasanin Anlami (die Bedeutung der Verfassung), S. 26.</font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn20" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn20" name="_ftn20" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref20"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[20]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Abadan</em>, Die Entstehung der T&uuml;rkei und ihre verfassungsrechtliche Entwicklung bis 1960, 356.</font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn21" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn21" name="_ftn21" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref21"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[21]</span></span></span></span></span></a><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB"> </span><st1:city w:st="on"><em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">Wayne</span></em></st1:city><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">, The <st1:place w:st="on">Ottoman Empire</st1:place>, S. 89.<o:p></o:p></span></font></font></p>
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<div id="ftn22" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn22" name="_ftn22" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref22"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[22]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Abadan,</em> Die Entstehung der T&uuml;rkei und ihre verfassungsrechtliche Entwicklung bis 1960, 357.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn23" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn23" name="_ftn23" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref23"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[23]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Rumpf,</em> Rechtsstaatsprinzip, S. 44.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn24" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn24" name="_ftn24" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref24"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[24]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>&Uuml;cok/Mumcu,</em> T&uuml;rk Hukuk Tarihi, (T&uuml;rkische Rechtsgeschichte), S. 314; <em>Lewis</em>, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, S. 110.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn25" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn25" name="_ftn25" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref25"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[25]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Rumpf</em>, die t&uuml;rkische Verfassung, S. 41.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn26" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn26" name="_ftn26" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref26"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[26]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Sencer</em>, T&uuml;rkiye&rsquo;nin Y&ouml;netim Yapisi (die Verwaltungsstruktur der T&uuml;rkei), S. 83: Nach seiner Ansicht, dass es sich &bdquo;der Form und dem Inhalt nach nicht um echte Verfassung&ldquo; handle. Sein Hauptargument ist, dass diese Verfassung keine demokratische Legitimation enthalten habe.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn27" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn27" name="_ftn27" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref27"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[27]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> Midhat, der Sohn eines &bdquo;Kadis&ldquo; (Richter), war nach seinen Medrese-Studien in die osmanische Zentralverwaltung eingetreten hat und stieg dann unter Sultan Abd&uuml;laziz f&uuml;r kurze Zeit zum Gro&szlig;wesir auf. Dabei hatte er sich als reformfreudiger Staatsmann bei der Durchf&uuml;hrung der Tanzimat-Reformen einen Namen gemacht; <em>Dazu</em>: http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/3/0,5716,53883+1,00.html.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn28" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn28" name="_ftn28" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref28"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[28]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>T&uuml;zel</em>, Anayasa Hukuku (Das Verfassungsrecht), S. 287; <em>Wayne</em>, The Ottoman Empire, S. 102; <em>Shaw</em>/<em>Shaw</em>, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, S.175; <em>Rumpf</em>, Rechtsstaatsprinzip, S.45; <em>Cin</em>-<em>Akg&uuml;nd&uuml;z</em>,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>T&uuml;rk Hukuk Tarihi (Die t&uuml;rkische Rechtsgeschichte), S. 167; f&uuml;r die Begr&uuml;ndung der Verfassung von 1876: <em>Kili</em>/ <em>G&ouml;z&uuml;b&uuml;y&uuml;k</em>, T&uuml;rk Anayasa Metinleri (T&uuml;rkische Verfassungstexte), S. 29, 30.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn29" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn29" name="_ftn29" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref29"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[29]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Matuz,</em> Das Osmanische Reich, S. 236.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn30" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn30" name="_ftn30" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref30"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[30]</span></span></span></span></span></a><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: FR"> </span><em><span lang="FR" style="mso-ansi-language: FR">Tan&ouml;r</span></em><span lang="FR" style="mso-ansi-language: FR">, S. 105.<o:p></o:p></span></font></font></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn31" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn31" name="_ftn31" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref31"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[31]</span></span></span></span></span></a><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: FR"> </span><em><span lang="FR" style="mso-ansi-language: FR">Tan&ouml;r,</span></em><span lang="FR" style="mso-ansi-language: FR"> S. 106. <o:p></o:p></span></font></font></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn32" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn32" name="_ftn32" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref32"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[32]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Okandan,</em> Amme Hukukumuzun Ana Hatlari (die Grundz&uuml;ge unseres &ouml;ffentlichen Rechts), S. 146-147.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn33" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn33" name="_ftn33" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref33"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[33]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Tan&ouml;r</em>, S. 106.</font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn34" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn34" name="_ftn34" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref34"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[34]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Tan&ouml;r</em>, S. 106; <em>Davison</em>, Reform, S. 167-168.</font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn35" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn35" name="_ftn35" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref35"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[35]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Dazu</em>: <em>Abadan, </em>Die Entstehung der T&uuml;rkei und ihre verfassungsrechtliche Entwicklung bis 1960, 358.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn36" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn36" name="_ftn36" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref36"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[36]</span></span></span></span></span></a><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB"> </span><em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">T&uuml;zel</span></em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">, </span><span lang="DE">Anayasa Hukuku (Verfassungsrecht)</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">, S. 289; <em>Shaw</em>/Shaw, </span><span lang="DE">History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Turkey</st1:place></st1:country-region>, </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">S.175.<o:p></o:p></span></font></font></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn37" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn37" name="_ftn37" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref37"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[37]</span></span></span></span></span></a><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB"> </span><em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">Albrecht</span></em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">, Das neue Reformwerk, 39; <em>T&uuml;zel</em>, </span><span lang="DE">Anayasa Hukuku (Verfassungsrecht)</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">, S. 288; <em>Shaw</em>/<em>Shaw</em>, </span><span lang="DE">History of the <st1:place w:st="on">Ottoman Empire</st1:place> and Modern Turkey, </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">S.175.<o:p></o:p></span></font></font></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn38" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn38" name="_ftn38" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref38"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[38]</span></span></span></span></span></a><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB"> </span><em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">Tan&ouml;r</span></em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">, S. 108; <st1:city w:st="on"><em>Wayne</em></st1:city>, The <st1:place w:st="on">Ottoman Empire</st1:place>, S. 102.<o:p></o:p></span></font></font></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn39" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn39" name="_ftn39" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref39"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[39]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Klever</em>, Das Weltreich der T&uuml;rkei, S. 381.</font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn40" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn40" name="_ftn40" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref40"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[40]</span></span></span></span></span></a><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB"> </span><st1:city w:st="on"><em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">Wayne</span></em></st1:city><em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">, </span></em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">The Ottoman Empire, S. 102; <em>Shaw</em>/<em>Shaw</em>, </span><span lang="DE">History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Turkey</st1:place></st1:country-region>,</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB"> S. 175, 177.<o:p></o:p></span></font></font></p>
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<div id="ftn41" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn41" name="_ftn41" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref41"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[41]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>T&uuml;zel</em>, Anayasa Hukuku (Verfassungsrecht), S. 289.</font></span></p>
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<div id="ftn42" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn42" name="_ftn42" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref42"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[42]</span></span></span></span></span></a><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB"> </span><em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">Shaw</span></em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">/<em>Shaw</em>, </span><span lang="DE">History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Turkey</st1:place></st1:country-region>,</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB"> S. 175.<o:p></o:p></span></font></font></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn43" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn43" name="_ftn43" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref43"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[43]</span></span></span></span></span></a><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB"> </span><em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">Tan&ouml;r</span></em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">, S. 107.<o:p></o:p></span></font></font></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn44" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn44" name="_ftn44" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref44"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[44]</span></span></span></span></span></a><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB"> </span><em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">Shaw</span></em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">/<em>Shaw</em>, </span><span lang="DE">History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Turkey</st1:place></st1:country-region>,</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB"> S. 175.<o:p></o:p></span></font></font></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn45" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn45" name="_ftn45" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref45"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[45]</span></span></span></span></span></a><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: FR"> </span><em><span lang="FR" style="mso-ansi-language: FR">Tan&ouml;r,</span></em><span lang="FR" style="mso-ansi-language: FR"> S. 107.<o:p></o:p></span></font></font></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn46" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn46" name="_ftn46" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref46"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[46]</span></span></span></span></span></a><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: FR"> </span><em><span lang="FR" style="mso-ansi-language: FR">Tan&ouml;r</span></em><span lang="FR" style="mso-ansi-language: FR">, S. 107.<o:p></o:p></span></font></font></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn47" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn47" name="_ftn47" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref47"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[47]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"> <em>Davison,</em> Turkey, A Short History, S. 101: Nach der Ansicht Herrn <em>Davison</em>, diese Verwaltungsform kann als begrenzte Autokratie betrachten.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span></font></font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn48" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn48" name="_ftn48" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref48"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[48]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="FR" style="mso-ansi-language: FR"><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"> Tan&ouml;r, S. 109.<o:p></o:p></font></font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn49" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn49" name="_ftn49" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref49"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[49]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="FR" style="mso-ansi-language: FR"><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"> Tan&ouml;r, S. 110.<o:p></o:p></font></font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn50" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn50" name="_ftn50" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref50"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[50]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> Albrecht, Das neue Reformwerk, 631.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn51" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn51" name="_ftn51" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref51"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[51]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Tan&ouml;r,</em> S. 108.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn52" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn52" name="_ftn52" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref52"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[52]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Albrecht</em>, Das neue Reformwerk, 631; <em>Sencer</em>, T&uuml;rkiye&rsquo;nin Y&ouml;netim Yapisi (die Verwaltungsstruktur der T&uuml;rkei), S. 84, Das Abgeordnetenhaus von 1877 bestand aus 115 Mitgliedern, von denen 69 T&uuml;rken und 46 Nichtt&uuml;rken waren; <em>Wayne</em>, The Ottoman Empire, S. 103.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn53" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn53" name="_ftn53" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref53"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[53]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> Das System war allerdings nicht ausgewogen, denn die Balkanprovinzen waren besonders stark vertreten.; <em>Majoros</em>- <em>Rill</em>, Das Osmanische Reich (1300-1922), S. 342.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn54" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn54" name="_ftn54" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref54"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[54]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Tan&ouml;r</em>, S. 109-112.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn55" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn55" name="_ftn55" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref55"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[55]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"> <em>Zum Kadi-System: &Uuml;cok/ Mumcu,</em> T&uuml;rk Hukuk Tarihi, (T&uuml;rkische Rechtsgeschichte), S. 228 ff; <em>Uzuncarsili, </em>Osmanli Devletinin Ilmiye Teskilati, (Die geistliche Organisation des Osmanischen Reiches), S. 83 ff.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span></font></font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn56" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn56" name="_ftn56" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref56"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[56]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> Rumpf, Rechtsstaatsprinzip, S. 53.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn57" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn57" name="_ftn57" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref57"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[57]</span></span></span></span></span></a><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB"> </span><em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">Shaw</span></em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">/<em>Shaw</em>, </span><span lang="DE">History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Turkey</st1:place></st1:country-region>,</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB"> S. 178.<o:p></o:p></span></font></font></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn58" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn58" name="_ftn58" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref58"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[58]</span></span></span></span></span></a><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><span lang="DE" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB"> </span><em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">Shaw</span></em><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB">/<em>Shaw</em>, </span><span lang="DE">History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Turkey</st1:place></st1:country-region>,</span><span lang="EN-GB" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-GB"> S. 177.<o:p></o:p></span></font></font></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn59" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn59" name="_ftn59" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref59"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[59]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Albrecht</em>, Das neue Reformwerk, 631: Die Jung-T&uuml;rken erstrebten zwei hohe Ziele: 1. Fortsetzung der Reformen, bis das Staatswesen einen durchaus modernen Charakter tr&auml;gt, 2. Beseitigung der unerh&ouml;rten Bevormundung der T&uuml;rkei durch die Gro&szlig;m&auml;chte. </font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn60" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn60" name="_ftn60" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref60"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[60]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> Dazu: <em>Albrecht</em>, Die Entwicklung des &ouml;ffentlichen Rechts in der T&uuml;rkei in den Jahren 1909 bis 1911, 481 ff.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn61" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn61" name="_ftn61" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref61"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[61]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Abadan</em>, Die Entstehung der T&uuml;rkei und ihre verfassungsrechtliche Entwicklung bis 1960, 359.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn62" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn62" name="_ftn62" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref62"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[62]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> Das Zustimmungserfordernis wurde 1911 wieder beseitigt, weil es unter den durch die Dominanz der Partei &bdquo;Freiheit und Fortschritt&ldquo; (Ittihat ve Terakki) bestimmten politischen Bedingungen hinderlich war. Ohne das Zustimmungserfordernis konnte sich die Partei des willigen Sultans (damals: Mehmet V.) bedienen, bei Bedarf eine vorzeitige Parlamentsaufl&ouml;sung herbeizuf&uuml;hren. Im Jahre 1918 kehrte sich diese Ma&szlig;nahme gegen die Partei, als der Nachfolger Mehmets V. seine Aufl&ouml;sungskompetenz so nutzte, wie sie sich im 1911 reformierten Verfassungstext darstellte, n&auml;mlich autonom und gegen die Partei &bdquo;Freiheit und Fortschritt&ldquo;.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn63" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn63" name="_ftn63" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref63"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[63]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> In der Verfassung von 1876 enthielt kein Zensurverbot.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn64" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn64" name="_ftn64" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref64"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[64]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Kili</em>, Festschrift Verfassung 1876, 192.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn65" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn65" name="_ftn65" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref65"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[65]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Kili</em>, Festschrift Verfassung 1876, 193.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn66" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn66" name="_ftn66" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref66"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[66]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>G&ouml;z&uuml;b&uuml;y&uuml;k</em>, Anayasa Hukuku (Verfassungsrecht), S. 97.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn67" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn67" name="_ftn67" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref67"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[67]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Rumpf</em>, Rechtsstaatsprinzip, S. 43.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn68" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn68" name="_ftn68" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref68"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[68]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Tan&ouml;r,</em> s. 112: Also, selbst w&auml;hrend die Kammern zusammentritt, wurde der Gro&szlig;wesir Ahmet Hamdi Pascha vom Sultan abgesetzt.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn69" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn69" name="_ftn69" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref69"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[69]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Rumpf</em>, Rechtsstaatsprinzip, S. 48.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn70" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn70" name="_ftn70" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref70"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[70]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font face="Times New Roman" size="2"> <em>Klever</em>, Das Weltreich der T&uuml;rkei, S. 381;<em>Wedekind</em>, S. 18.</font></span></p>
</div>
<div id="ftn71" style="mso-element: footnote">
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><a title="" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn71" name="_ftn71" href="http://www.turkishweekly.net/FCKeditor/editor/fckeditor.html?InstanceName=text&amp;Toolbar=Default#_ftnref71"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">[71]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="DE"><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"> <em>Hirsch</em>, Die Verfassung der T&uuml;rkischen Republik, S. 28; <em>Wedekind</em>, S. 19: Am 20.1.1921 verabschiedete das neue Grundgesetz. Es war<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>als vorl&auml;ufig gedachtes und kurz gefasstes Grundgesetz. Es hob formell das Grundgesetz von 1876 nicht auf, aber durch die Betonung des Prinzips der Volkssouver&auml;nit&auml;t und dem Anspruch der t&uuml;rkischen gro&szlig;en Nationalversammlung, die Inhalte von 1876 praktisch abschafften.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span></font></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="MARGIN: 0cm 39.6pt 0pt 18pt; TEXT-INDENT: -8.5pt; TEXT-ALIGN: justify"><span lang="DE"><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes"></span></font></font></span></p>
<span lang="DE"><font size="2"><font face="Times New Roman"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3"><strong>Literaturverzeichnis</strong></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3"></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Abadan, Yavuz: Die Entstehung der T&uuml;rkei und ihre verfassungsrechtliche Entwicklung bis 1960, J&ouml;R 9 (1960), S. 353 ff.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Albrecht, W.: Das neue Reformwerk der T&uuml;rkei, seine Vorgeschichte und seine Aussichten auf Bestand, Das &Ouml;ffentliche Recht Der Gegenwert, Jahrbuch 1909, Band III, T&uuml;bingen.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Albrecht, W.: Die Entwicklung des &ouml;ffentlichen Rechts in der T&uuml;rkei in den Jahren 1909 bis 1911, Das &Ouml;ffentliche Recht Der Gegenwert, Jahrbuch 1912, Band VI, T&uuml;bingen.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Aldikacti, Orhan: Anayasa Hukukumuzun Gelismesi ve 1961 Anayasasi (Die Entwicklung unseres Verfassungsrechts und die Verfassung von 1961), Istanbul 1978.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Cin, Halil/ Akg&uuml;nd&uuml;z, Ahmet: T&uuml;rk Hukuk Tarihi I (Die t&uuml;rkische Rechtsgeschichte), Konya 1989.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Coulson, N. J.: A History of Islamic Law, Edinburg 1964.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Davison, Roderic H.: Turkey, A Short History, 3. Edition (Updated by Clement H. Dodd), Huntingdon 1998. </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Davison, Roderic H.: Osmanli Imparatorlugu&rsquo;nda Reform (der Reform im osmanischen Reich) , 1856- 1876, 2. Band, Ankara 1997. </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">G&ouml;z&uuml;b&uuml;y&uuml;k, Seref: Anayasa Hukuku (Verfassungsrecht), 4.Aufl., Ankara 1993.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">G&ouml;z&uuml;b&uuml;y&uuml;k, Seref: Aciklamali T&uuml;rk Anayasalari (Die Verfassung der T&uuml;rkischen Republik), Ankara 1993.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Hirsch, Ernst E.: Die Verfassung der T&uuml;rkischen Republik,<span style="mso-tab-count: 1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Staatsverfassungen der Welt Bd. 7, Frankfurt 1966.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Kili, Suna / G&ouml;z&uuml;b&uuml;y&uuml;k, Seref: T&uuml;rk Anayasa Metinleri (T&uuml;rkische Verfassungstexte), Ankara 1985.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Kili, Suna: 1876 Anayasasinin Cagdaslasma Sorunlari Acisindan Degerlendirilmesi (Die Beurteilung der Verfassung von 1876 unter dem Gesichtspunkt der Probleme de Modernisierung), Festschrift Verfassung 1876.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Klever, Ulrich: Das Weltreich der T&uuml;rken, Bayreuth 1978.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Majoros, Frenc / Rill, Bernd: Das Osmanische Reich (1300-1922), Die Geschichte einer Gro&szlig;macht, Regensburg 1994.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Matuz, Josef: Das Osmanische Reich, Grundlinien seiner Geschichte, Darmstadt 1985.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Robinson, O. F./ Fergus, T. D./ Gordon, W. M.&nbsp;: European Legal History, Second Edition, London 1994.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Rumpf, Christian: Das Rechtsstaatprinzip in der t&uuml;rkischen Rechtsordnung, Bonn 1992.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Rumpf, Christian: Das t&uuml;rkische Verfassungssystem, Wiesbaden 1996.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Sarica, Murat: Siyasal Tarih (Die Politischengeschichte), 2. Auflage, Istanbul 1983.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Schacht, Joseph: An Introduction to Islamic Law, London 1964.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Shaw, Stanford J../ Shaw, Ezel K.: History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, vol. II., Cambridge 1977.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Soysal, M&uuml;mtaz: Anayasanin Anlami (Die Bedeutung der Verfassung), Istanbul 1976.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Tan&ouml;r, B&uuml;lent: Osmanli- T&uuml;rk Anayasal Gelismeleri (Osmanisch- T&uuml;rkische Verfassungsentwicklung), 2. Auflage, Istanbul 1995.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">T&uuml;zel, Sadik: Anayasa Hukuku (Verfassungsrecht), Izmir 1969. </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">&Uuml;cok, Coskun / Mumcu, Ahmet: T&uuml;rk Hukuk Tarihi, (T&uuml;rkische Rechtsgeschichte), 6. Auflage, Ankara 1987. </font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Uzuncarsili, Ismail H.:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp; </span>Osmanli Devletinin Ilmiye Teskilati, (Die geistliche Organisation des Osmanischen Reiches), 2. Auflage, Istanbul 1984.</font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3">Wayne , S. Vucinich: The Ottoman Empire, Its Record und Legacy, New York 1965.&nbsp;<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">&nbsp;</span></font></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0cm 0cm 0pt"><span lang="DE"><font size="3"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes"></span></font></span><span lang="DE" style="FONT-SIZE: 12pt; FONT-FAMILY: &quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-fareast-language: DE; mso-ansi-language: DE; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA">Wedekind, Rudolf: Die T&uuml;rkische Verfassung 1982, Hannover 1984.</span></p>
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